As humanity moves into the future with a bigger and more troubled population than ever before recorded, the leaders of these peoples are looking for ways to sustain and support their growing numbers. Along with more people comes more pollution, which means economically, more costs. One of the ideas that "kills two birds with one stone" (which can be taken literally if the reader is an opponent of constructed wetlands and their potential dangers to life forms that frequent these human-made marshes) is the idea of incorporating existing wetlands and/or constructed wetlands for tertiary treatment of wastewater. This has incorporated a very broad scope of acceptability that ranges from simple household treated wastewater discharged to a constructed wetland area to be later discharged to a larger body of water (generally referred to as a polishing step in the final stages of wastewater treatment), to the industrial heavy metal contamination that limits biodiversity to a select few individual species that can tolerate these compounds in the smallest of doses (Reed 1995). Where does the public draw the line? When does humanity stop looking for easy answers and just bears the burden of it's own making? Or is this one of the last ways in which people can sustain and/or restore habitats that are fast disappearing from the face of Terra? Can the latter even be considered as an option? Is wildlife at risk? Or should constructed wetlands be just that, and naturally occurring wetlands be protected with the strongest of fervor? This paper will attempt to answer some of those questions.

Natural Marshes/Wetlands traditionally maintain very diverse flora and fauna populations; many of the animals are migratory birds and utilize these areas for nesting and feeding. Along with bird species raising their offspring in the protection of the marsh, fish also multiply here as well, using the dense cover of the extensive root systems in deeper waters to harbor their young from those who would dine on them. In addition to supporting meso-level predators marshes typically are sustained by numerous plant species. One typical freshwater marsh in Southern California contains 178 vascular plant taxa alone, although a large percentage of these plants are non native species (Bowler 1991), thus proving the need for protection in sensitive and highly disturbed habitats such as over-populated southern California.

When looking at a natural habitat the need for addressing it's ecological integrity is essential to the area's continuation. A new awareness is becoming apparent. Though natural areas can never be entirely free of human effects due to such wide reaching changes as ozone depletion (Cairns 1995), they can be assessed and protected based on their aesthetic contributions, and their capability of housing large gene banks of flora and fauna. This is ultimately in the best interests of the planet. Yet, in the past a natural area was "deemed satisfactory to society" (meaning 'oh yea, I guess we've found a use for it') if it could be used as a recreation facility that entertained people. Now biological integrity considers the condition of the site relative to what could be expected in the absence of humanity. This is definitely a positive change but other measures for ecological integrity must also keep in mind the ability of an area to sustain a large enough system to provide for biotic interactions and metapopulation processes, as well as long term nutrient cycling and consistent parameters so as to ensure biodiversity (Carins 1995). Since there is definitely a need to maintain the quality of life in these rich habitats, then steps must be taken to ensure the quality of the influent waters to these areas, yet there are ongoing experiments that test the capability of such a habitat to maintain its functionality under differing measures of stress. This is where humanity should tread lightly, for there is tremendous evidence for destruction potential when pollutants are introduced. The knowledge for degradation of an entire natural marsh far outweighs the information of it's self regulating capabilities, though it is understood that the microbial population of the root system and sediments is one of the richest on Earth and is able to reduce solids and remove nutrients (Josselyn). Those capabilities are better addressed in a controlled environment, such as a constructed wetland where parameters can be measured and optimized, with minimal damage to the surrounding wildlife and habitat. Even then, conditions may fluctuate and shocks occur. Massive loading of pollutants is sometimes unavoidable in wastewater treatment.

Recently in Alexandria Egypt, a pilot study of two sectioned off cells each totaling 267 square meters, handling an average flow of primary effluent from treatment plants between 38m3/d and 54m3/d (cubic meters daily) maintained acceptable levels of pollutant removal for Alexandria's water quality standards with the exceptions of dissolved Oxygen levels and total coliform concentrations. The study utilized three species of emergent vegetation: common reed (Phragmites sp.), cattails (Typha sp.) and bulrushes (Scirpus sp.). The deeper waters were supplemented with water hyacinths (Eichornia crossipes) and duck weed (Lenna sp.). The results showed reduced flow, aiding in reduction of suspended solids, nutrient and heavy metals retention, and provided nesting and spawning levels that have maintained certain species (Reimold 1997). All 437 plants were taken sporadically from surrounding irrigation canals, proving that existing environments need not be destroyed. The cost effectiveness of this pilot study has been as encouraging as it's removal success rate, opening new doors for Egypt and it's arid climate.

Another success story but with a different twist is the California constructed wetlands in Riverside. The Hidden Valley Wetlands Enhancement Project (completed in 1995) has been a unique success story. A new wasteload allocation for the Santa Ana region made the city of Riverside expand it's wastewater treatment system in order to protect ground water basins. While decisions were being debated, the Hidden Valley Wildlife Area was declining, due to unreliable water supply and fiscal constraints (McPherson 1997). It was ultimately looking at closure and bulldozer. Researchers at the University of California Riverside determined that constructed duck ponds (built and abandoned by the local gun club) could reduce nitrogen levels of diverted plant effluent even though there was little emergent growth. The city decided to incorporate the down stream wetlands as part of the treatment plant's nitrogen management program (McPherson 1997). By improving the reliability of water flow and restoring riparian habitat for native water fowl and fish species, the wetlands saw increased biodiversity, and surrounding areas saw highly polished tertiary effluent recharging depleted water reserves. This study did not induce effluent to the wetland; agricultural irrigation had been flowing into the marsh for the last 20 years, producing shocks to the ecosystem and often causing uneven flow or no flow at all. Much of the area had been taken over with an exotic plant (Arundo donax), so it was quite apparent that sensitive species had been in danger in this area for quite a while. Since the wetlands incorporation, 18 underground monitoring wells have kept controllers appraised of the wetlands water quality. The pre treatment program is closely monitored and effective barriers are in place to minimize shocks to the wetland. These measures were implemented in a cost effective manner and have proven their necessity and worth by helping the wetland to currently support 94 bird species, and over 10,000 visitors a year (McPherson). This scenario is certainly palatable when the only other choice is destruction, but this example by no means should be taken as an alternative to protecting natural undisturbed Habitats from human encroachment.

Over 90% of California's wetlands have disappeared. Each year between 100 to 200,000 acres of wetland are lost due to human activity (McPherson). Quality of life for all members of the environment is crucial for sustainability (Bowler 1991). There are so many things humanity is unaware of when experimenting with natural systems, that it is often only in hindsight when we see our mistakes. How long will people keep bumbling around and discovering new problems such as, 'hormone disrupters' changing the sex organs of fish due to sewage water containing discarded birth control compounds (Kaiser 1996)? or the overgrazing of domesticated animals that then opens up the remaining coastal sage scrub habitat to exotic plant species which quickly take over (Bowler 1991)? Americans in particular need to open up to restoring disturbed areas as well as protecting pristine ones. Once tainted by human activity, often areas are abandoned instead of restored here in the United States. There are vast areas in the southwest totally incapable of sustaining the original wildlife that once existed there before cattle and sheep. The land mangers of Europe were compelled to learn the lesson of restoration, though restoration does not restore the area to its original condition (Bowler 1992). This is a concept that Americans must let go. We are fast running out of things to ruin. Let's start fixing what we've broken. Constructed wetlands are a functional and workable answer to the rising costs of pollution management, but we must keep in mind that care and watchful management alone won't accomplish the task of cleaning our waters. Conserving and recycling along with maintaining existing preservations are just some of the ways to control the pollution problem while keeping intact biodiversity and environmental integrity.

Bowler, Peter & Adrian Wolf. "Vascular Plants of the San Joaquin Freshwater Marsh Reserve; Angiosperms - Flowering Plants". University of California Irvine. 1993

Bowler, Peter A. "The Challenge of living with growth in a healthy Environment". Crossosoma. Vol. 17. No 3. June 1991

Bowler. Peter A. "Biodiversity Conservation in Europe and North America. II. Shrublands. In Defense of Disturbed Land". Restoration & Management Notes. Vol. 10. No 2.P 144-149. 1992

Cairns, John Jr. Ecological Integrity of Aquatic Systems". Regulated Rivers: Research & Management ".

Kaiser, Jocelyn. "Endocrine Disrupters". Science. Vol. 274. P 1837. December 13, 1996

Josselyn, Michael. "Wastewater Marshes: Proceed with Caution". Unknown. p 17-19. San Francisco State University.

McPherson, John., Surendra K, Thakral and Gloria Tseng-Chen Lai. "Wetlands Application of Reclaimed Water". Water Environment & Technology. Vol. 9. No 3. P 35-41. March 1997

Reed, Sherwood, Ronald Crites and Joe Middlebrooks. Natural Systems for Waste Management and Treatment. McGraw Hill, Inc. P 173-284. 1995

Reimold, Robert & Margaret McBrien. "Evaluating Wetlands Treatment Systems for Alexandria, Egypt". Water Environment &Technology. Vol 9. No 3. P 29-32. March 1997

Natural Resource Management Sites

Aquatic Plants

http://aquat1.ifas.ufl.edu/

Biodiversity and Biological Collections

http://www.keil.ukans.edu/

Biodiversity and Ecosystems Network

http://straylight.tamu.edu/bene/bene.html

Biological Survey

http://www.nfrog.gov

Botany

http://herb.biol.uregina.ca/liu/bio/botany.html

Ecology (France)

http://biomserv.univ-lyonl.fr/Ecology-WWW.html

Ecoweb, university of Virginia

http://ecosys.drdr.virginia.edu:80/Ecoweb.html

Entomology

http://www.colostate.edu/depts/entomology

Forestry

http://www.metla.fi/info/vlib/Forestry.html

Landscape Architecture

http://www.clr.toronto.edu/virtuallib/larch.html

National Wildlife Refuge System

http://bluegoose.arw.r9.fws.gov/NWRSfiles/index.html

Plants (database, National Resources Conservation Service)

http://plants.usda.gov/npdc

Remote Sensing and GIS

http://www.gis.umn.edu/

Other Web Sites

SWAMP conference program

http://www.comutan.on.ca/~prodigal/swmpcnto.htm

SWRL (Southern Louisiana University Wetlands Restoration Laboratory)

http://www.selu.edu/Academics/Depts/Biology/pages/wetlab/swrlpage.html

Wetland Biogeochemistry Institute, Louisiana State University

http://www.leeric.lsu.edu/wetlands/

Wetlands Curriculum - WOW!: The wonders of Wetlands

http://www.wetland.org/wow.htm

Wetlands Division

http://www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands

Wetland Nursery - Environmental Concern Inc.

http://www.wetland.org/nursey.htm

Wetlands Regulations Federal Clean Air Act Rivers and Harbors Act

http://www.wetlands.com/regs/tlpge01c.htm

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