Sustainable Oceans and Coastal Zones 

1998 United Nations Year of the Oceans
Unit 6

Rehabilitation and Restoration of  Degraded Coastal Ecosystems. Prospects and Planning for Environmental Sustainability

A sustainable shrimp aquaculture ecosystem is a managed coastal wetland where: 

 
INPUTS in terms of FEEDS and POSTLARVAE  should be within the assimilative, carrying and holding capacities of the shrimp ecosystem itself, without degredation of existing fisheries resources and social relationships. 
 
If hatcheries are not financially possible, part of the proceeds from shrimp farming should be devoted towards sustaining the local fisheries and developing sustainable, community-based aquaculture ecosystems.
 
     
OUTPUTS  should be retained by the shrimp ecosystem without waste discharges and bioaccumulative toxins, without escape of unwanted exotic plants, animals or microbes, ensuring that the structures and functions of natural ecosystems and their allied social ecologies are not adversely impacted. 
 
If wastes are discharged, part of the proceeds from shrimp farming should be devoted to researching pollution free, sustainable alternatives.
 
   
Reasons for closed systems (Breen 1997 hbreen@island.net) 27 Oct 97 posting to fishfolk@mitvma.mit.edu
 
1. eliminates risks of escapes
2. eliminates risks of disease transfers to wild species
3. eliminates risks of genetic dilution/alteration
4. eliminates use of lethal force on on-target species
5. eliminates risk of use of transgenics
6. eliminates discharges of antibiotics and bioaccumulants
7. eliminates risk to other stakeholders
8. eliminates risk of ecosystem degradation
9. eliminates restoration costs
10. eliminates risk of consumer backlash and boycotts
11. eliminates risk from algal blooms
12. improved feed utilization
13. reduces consumption of chemicals
14. allows efficient removal of moralities
15. allows better monitoring
16. able to contain waste water and wastes
17. can reuse wastes
18. no visual pollution  

Shrimp aquaculture is subsidized by local fishers and communities  
Ecosystem Service Subsidy Provider Action Required
Post-larvae from Coastal Zone, No Hatcheries Capture Fishers Develop Closed System, Non-toxic Shrimp Hatchery Model
Genetic Diversity of Wild Shrimp Populations Capture Fishers Develop Plans to Maintain Long Term Sustainability of Wild Shrimp Stocks
Waste Treatment Local Communities Develop Waste Treatment Systems Ensuring Zero Discharge
 

Labor Absorption in Shrimp Aquaculture in Indonesia
   
SYSTEM WORKERS (per  ha)
Extensive 0.4
Semi-Intensive 1.8
Intensive 1.0-1.6
 Note from the authors, "When we add in the amount of labor employed in pond rehabilitation and harvest, the differences in labor absorption between semi-intensive and intensive operations dissolve." (p. 202, Muluk and Bailey 1996).

Bibliography of Integrated Mariculture Ecosystems

Binh, C. et al. 1997. Integrated shrimp-mangrove farming systems in the Mekong delta of Vietnam. Aquaculture Research 28: 599-610.

Hopkins, J., C. Browdy, R. Hamilton, and J. Heffernan. 1995. The effect of low-rate sand filtration and modified feed management on effluent water quality, pond water quality and production of intensive shrimp ponds. Estuaries 18: 116-123.

Neori, A. et al. 1996. Seaweed biofilters as regulators of water quality in integrated fish-seaweed culture units. Aquaculture 141: 183-199.

Porter, C., P. Krost, H. Gordin and D. Angel. 1996. Preliminary assessment of grey mullet (Mugil cephalus) as a forager of organically enriched sediments below marine fish farms. Israeli Journal of Aquaculture-Bamidgeh 48(1): 47-55.

Rajendran, N. and K. Kathiresan. 1996. Effect of effluent from a shrimp pond on shoot biomass of mangrove seedlings. Aquaculture Research 27: 745-747.

Sandifer, P. and J.S. Hopkins. 1996. Conceptual design of a sustainable pond-based shrimp culture design. Aquacultural Engineering 15: 41-52.

Schwartz, M. and C. Boyd. 1995. Constructed wetlands for treatment of channel catfish pond effluents. Progressive-Fish Culturist 57: 255-266.

Wang, J-W. 1990. Managing shrimp pond water to reduce discharge problems. Aquacultural Engineering 9: 61-73.


Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Agardy, T. 1997. Marine protected areas and ocean conservation. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.

Chua, T.-E. 1993? Coastal aquaculture development and the environment. The role of coastal area management. Marine Policy 25: 98-103.

Chou, L., T. Chua, H. Koo, P. Lim, J. Paw, G. Silvestre, M. Valencia, A. White, and P. Wong. 1991. Towards an integrated management of tropical coastal resources. ICLARM Conf. Procs. 22. ICLARM, Manila, Philippines.
URI Coastal Resources Center


Social Concerns

Bailey, C. 1988. The social consequences of tropical shrimp mariculture development. Ocean and Shoreline Management 11: 31-44.

Bailey, C. 1997. Aquaculture and basic human needs. World Aquaculture 28(3): 28-31.

Folke, C. and N. Kautsky. 1992. Aquaculture with its environment: prospects for sustainability. Ocean and Coastal Management 17: 5-24.

Muluk, C. and C. Bailey. 1996. Social and environmental impacts of coastal aquaculture in Indonesia, p. 193-209. In: C. Bailey, S. Jentof and P. Sinclair (eds.) Aquacultural Development. Social Dimensions of an Emerging Industry. Westview Press.

Primavera, J. 1997. Socio-economic impacts of shrimp culture. Aquaculture Research 28, in press.