I. Introduction

    The Republic of Indonesia comprises the world's largest archipelago, stretching 3,200 miles from east to west along the Equator. Spanning roughly equivalent to the distance of United States from coast to coast, and 1,100 miles from north to south. Indonesia's 17,508 islands (Indonesian Naval Hydro-Oceanographic office, 1996) are nestled between two continents, Asia and Australia, and two oceans, the Indian and the Pacific. The main islands in Indonesia are: Java, Sumatra, Sulawesi, Bali, Kalimantan, Nusa Tenggara, Maluku, and Irian Jaya (the western part of Papua New Guinea).

    In Indonesia, the total sea area (7.9 million square kilometers) is four times greater than its land area (1.9 million square kilometers). The total sea area is equivalent to about 81 % of the total area of the country. The total population in Indonesia is roughly 180 million, and density is greatest on the island of Java, where more than 100 million people live, at a calculated population density of 814 per square kilometer. Indonesia has a fertility rate of 2.87, with the infant mortality rate of 58 per 1,000 (World Bank, 1994).

    Indonesia contains one of the world's most remarkable biodiversity. Due to the fact that the flora is so rich many people in Indonesia have made a good living from the nation’s natural resources. About 6,000 species of plants are known to be used directly or indirectly by the people (World Bank, 1994). A striking example in modern times is the use of native plants in the production of traditional herbal medicine "Jamu". Many flowers are also indispensable in ceremonial, customary and traditional rituals. The fauna of Indonesia is also of great importance which covers rare species of birds, and there are several unique land species such as the Orangutans and the Komodo dragons, etc. However, due to the combination of industrialization and cultural uses of Indonesia’s natural resources, as well some disconceiling environmental trends, the nation is also known as one of the eight "environmental heavyweights" (Brown, 1996).

    The climate is equatorial, with cooler climates in the highlands. The temperature ranges from 68(F to 89(F. The tropical climate brings much moisture, the humidity ranges from 60% to 105%. The climate changes every six months. The dry season (June to September) is influenced by the Australian continental air masses; while the rainy season (December to March) is the result of the Asian and Pacific Ocean air masses. The transitional periods between the two seasons are April to May and October to November.

    Java has 60% of Indonesia’s population, 70% of the nation’s irrigated agriculture, and 75% of the nation’s industries. There has been a transition from dependence upon oil and agriculture to rapid industrialization. While the nation has made great strides to increase living standards and its productivity, Indonesia’s economy still relies heavily on the wealth of its natural resources (land, forests, water, and energy). Indeed, according to Goodland and Daly (1996), growth and development contradict each other. Efficient allocation and use of natural resources and surviving the critical ecosystems are all important factors to a sustainable environment for Indonesia. However at the same time, growth in the industrial sector growths will continue to be concentrated in urban areas. Especially on Java, where pollution already exists from urban sources such as human waste, solid waste and vehicle emission and with the addition of industrial pollution, the environmental costs that Indonesia is paying for the rapid economic improvements are higher than expected.

    Jakarta, the capital city, with its population of 8.2 million, is located on the western part of Java. Like in other countries, particularly those in the developing world, the capital city is always the major attraction for the rural population. This is especially true where the land no longer offers an effective means to learn a living and, unfortunately, Indonesia faces similar problems. Over the years, particularly after World War II, cities have grown rapidly in population, so much so that municipal governments have not been very successful in coping with the impact of urbanization. Over the last thirty years, the income per capita in Indonesia rose from US$50 to US$650; adult illiteracy rates have been cut by two-thirds; and national development have also attracted many private investors who have come to share in its financial growth (Department of Foreign Affairs, 1997). However, such development has created problems that are directly contributing to uneven health issues in the public and has exposed Indonesia’s inadequate city planning.

    Water supply has always been one of the biggest problems in Jakarta. The Indonesian government estimated that only a third of its population in the city of Jakarta have direct access to piped water and about 30% depend solely on water vendors (Sivaramakrishman and Green, 1986; Clarke, et al., 1991). The rest of the population rely on shallow wells, deep wells, or nearby river water. Sanitation is a major problem mainly due to the fact that the city does not have a water borne sewerage system. Nearly 700,000 cubic meters of sewage is generated every day and is dumped into canals which literally became sewers (Asiaweek, 1991). Most dwellings have no indoor plumbing and canals are used for bathing, laundry and defecation.

    The main source of drinking water is the hilly regions to the south, but most people choose to purchase drinking water at high costs. The city can not provide clean and adequate water supply. There is also intrusion of seawater into the ground water that leads to salted ground water reaching the central portion of the city. There have been attempts by the government to restrict the industrial developments in the south which from where clean water sources originate, and to build more sewage systems. However, studies show that 80 percent of the population is chronically infected with water borne parasites, causing great numbers of deaths in adults and children due to pneumonia, tuberculosis, rheumatic fever and cholera (PT Hasfarm Dian Konsultan, 1985).

    With all the pollution around the city of Jakarta, it’s obvious that the sanitary condition and efficient waste treatment plans should be enhanced in order to support a growing population in Jakarta (Pacific Century E-Media, 1997). The industrial firms and organizations seem to have little concern over the health and welfare of surrounding communities in urban areas as they continue to concentrate in and around Jakarta. Continuous dumping of toxic and hazardous wastes into the Java Sea and public canals often creates potentially irreversible loss of critical ecosystems, making clean up work prohibitive.

    The Indonesian government has started projects that are set specifically to deal with better and more efficient water supply systems as well as safer ways for elimination of industrial wastes and pollution such as improved sewerage systems and involvement with higher technological interventions. It is far easier to state principles claiming to integrate environmental issues and concerns into the development process, than embark on the difficult work of taking maximum advantage of natural resources and effectively dealing with inevitable tradeoffs from development. The Indonesian government has started water supply and waste treatment projects that will cost money, an addition of estimated US$70 million per year and longer than a decade to complete (World Bank, 1996). In the following text I will attempt to explain in detail of what problems there will exist in Jakarta today and what can the Indonesian government do to reach the ideal of a "sustainable Jakarta".

    Indonesia’s aquatic ecosystem is not any different from other aquatic ecosystems in the world, but consists of more tropical fish species that are not found anywhere else. Like other aquatic ecosystems, food webs within the Java Sea involve many species that are inter-dependent on each other. There are microscopic single-cell planktonic algae that are in the first trophic level. There are small invertebrates called zooplankton and some smaller fish that feed on the algae, which form the second trophic level. These herbivores are fed on some bigger fish and other invertebrates, they form the third trophic level. On top of these, some larger fish and marine mammals, such as killer whales, feed on the predatory fish and they stand on top of all trophic levels, as well as being the "keystone species" in their ecosystem (Botkin & Keller, 1998).

    Indonesia possesses vast oceanic resources and a huge fishing industry as well as a strong tourism industry. Indonesia’s sea area is four times greater than its land area, or about 81% of the total area of the country. However, as the country tried to raise its social-economic status, industrial firms and factories continue dumping toxic wastes into the Java Sea and major river systems thus causing irreversible damage. Industrial pollutants such as HCH (Hexachlorcyclohexan), which is used in wood preservatives and pesticides, contains lots of chlorine and is very toxic to the aquatic living environment (Physical and Environmental Geography, 1994).

    Another major species should be accounted as a "keystone species" is human beings; since humans are the ones who have     been dumping the chemical wastes into the rivers. The rivers in Jakarta receive discharge from drains and ditches carrying untreated wastewater from households, commercial buildings and institutions, and the discharge from industries, solid waste and fecal wastes from overflowing or leaking septic tanks (State of Urbanization in Asia and Pacific, 1993, UN). Seawater has also been affected, and high concentrations of certain heavy metals such as non-medicated sweets, crude and refined coconut oil (Asian Development Bank, 1996), are found in the sea sediment and seawater in the bay.

    More specifically, all human activities, namely agricultural, urban, and industrial, together with domestic wastes and various discharges are the main sources of pollution (World Bank, 1996). Industrial pollution per se, is largely the result from transformations of raw materials such as paper and pulp, and losses of final products, chemical reagents, and other emissions. Wastes vary according to type of industries, consisting of soluble organic matter, suspended solids, heavy metals, and toxic wastes. Also, acknowledging that up to 1987, the foreign investment projects that concentrated on chemistry and paper industries totaled 18 major projects with estimated investment of Rp. 270,080 million, and a year later almost doubled itself (Regional Investment Coordinating Board, Java, 1988). Therefore, it’s really not hard to see where the money went and clearly if these moneys were placed upon restoration of natural ecosystems Jakarta now might have been a cleaner environment to host its 10 million people.

    Not only in Indonesia, but around the world, the conversion, degradation, fragmentation, and simplification of ecosystems has been extensive. Some impacts are reversible, but are irreversible if the ecosystems are removed. A good example is the Singapore River which was technically a flowing sewer but with great improvements done by the government it’s now not too bad at all (Costa-Pierce, 1998). With huge loss of existing river basins and wetlands, Jakarta lost most of is natural ecosystem services such as producing raw materials, purifying and regulating water, absorbing and decomposing wastes, cycling nutrients, creating and maintaining soils (Brown, 1997). Without current effective legal restrictions against polluters, people seem to have taken the nature for granted and did things totally on an anthropocentric point of view where humans were first and nature was second (Lackey, 1997). Therefore, artificial ecosystem services must be performed to ensure people they will have sufficient yet clean water supply.

    In Jakarta, where population density increases continuously (see Figure 1), meeting the goal of improving quality of drinking water and providing domestic water simply are crucial to a sustainable living environment. Since most of natural rivers are polluted in Jakarta, studies have recommended a combination of 1. Simple On-Site Sanitation; 2. High Level On-Site Sanitation; and 3. Off-Site Sanitation (Sewerage) should be implemented by the year 2010 (Department of Public Works, 1996).

Figure. 1 Current and Future

Population Density in Indonesia

    Simple On-Site Sanitation" refers to treating toilet waste only on site individually, and applied to the area with population density of less than 100 persons/ha. One treatment unit is basically equipped in one household. The most popular individual treatment system is the leaching pit, but treatment efficiency is low. The alternative is the septic tank with up-flow filtration. Technically, the septic tank with up-flow filter is recommended due to its reliability. However, different equipment will have different prices and not all households will choose such intervention due to financial constricts or other economic factors.

    "High Level On-Site Sanitation" or HLOSS, refers to treating both toilet waste and gray water on site individually, also called a "Small Scale Sewerage", and applied to the area with population density between 100-300 persons/ha. HLOSS can be provided either by the government or private sector as a sanitary system in the newly developed housing estates and commercial districts. Facilities such as public toilet with washing and bathing facilities in high densely populated areas are considered as a communal sanitation system provided by the government. They may be equipped individually with a leaching pit or septic tank as their wastewater treatment system.

    Aerated lagoon type treatment (AL) is known as a low cost option, and it is easily applied. But this type requires a large space to retain sewage for 4 days, therefore it may not be applied to all sites. Activated sludge type treatment (AS) is more costly than the AL type because it is more artificial but requires less land and only takes about seventeen hours retention. AS type treatment now is also used in the urban areas to solve land acquisition problems.

    "The Sewerage System" refers to collection of both toilet water and gray water then treating them at off-site treatment system, and is applied to the area with population density over 300 persons/ha. This is the most commonly used public wastewater management system. Sewerage systems require collection facilities that consist of house connection, tertiary, secondary and sewers, trunk and main sewers, conveyance sewers, pump station and pressure pipes. Usually selection of treatment is dependent upon four aspects: location of treatment system; available land space; reliability of effluent quality; and financial capital.

A. Social Constraints

    As a developing country, Indonesia faces great numbers of people who live in illiteracy and poverty. With low levels of education available to majority (75%) of its people, a high rate of unemployment and underemployment are inevitable (Asian Development Bank, 1996). The nature of environmental problems tend to be complex and highly variant. Unfortunately currently in Indonesia there are few environmental specialists, and these individuals seem to be overcommitted. Thus there is a shortage of local specialists to operate project sites and to effectively communicate with workers. On the other hand, there is also little attention on the growing capacity of local institutions for technical assistance at project sites (World Bank, 1996).

B. Political Constraints

    The major constraints that are found in Indonesia are generally the misarranged Environmental and Economic Records and Gaps in Information Analysis (Asian Development Bank, 1996). Many environmental projects have been carried out in Indonesia, but oftentimes documents were rejected and mixed up with other proposals. Often it would take several years before reports reach decision makers. One reason may be the complexity of the structure of governmental agencies that are in charge. The other would be the lack of standards set in the first place. In comparison to other places in southeast Asia, Indonesia has rudimentary standards for discharges into rivers or open watercourses (see Fig. 2).

Figure 2. Effluent Standards For Point Sources Or Discharges Into Rivers Or Open Watercourses That Eventually Reach The Ocean

    Instead of compiling useful files and documents, environmental and economic records are often widely scattered and mixed with non-environmental documents in project, ministry, directorate general, directorate, subregional, and other offices. Oftentimes proposals are not compiled or analyzed several years after collected and obviously information would have been outdated and had to be disregarded. Due to this great amount of information loss, it is now almost impossible to assemble credible databases without spending great deal of time and money to interview different offices. For example, records from the Brantas River Basin (the most studied one in the nation) not be viewed by the Central Government, or Provincial Government but to the East Java City Government. Recommendations will be weighed and waited (because there is no proper authority to carry out the missions) until the authorities in Jakarta would set a conference date with the sector. These inefficiencies consume a great deal of time and causes an expensive loss of data.

    There are also gaps, limited traceability, inadequate documentation of the sources, quality and context of many records, inconsistent formats and uneven coverage that weaken time series records. Therefore, even as policy makers and higher-level economists in Jakarta may have scheduled conferences, some reports and important databases would have been lost or inaccessible to them.

C. Economic Constraints

    Jakarta, the capital city of Indonesia, with a current population of roughly 9.75 million people, has a land area of 650 square kilometers, and a per capita income of US$3,000 in 1996 (Pacific Century E-Media, 1997). Jakarta’s projected economic growth rate has been a steady 8.3% over the past five years and is the "gateway to all of Indonesia" in terms of the nation’s economic activity and civilization. It consists about 30% of the nation’s exports and 63% of all the imports transacted; the center of circulation of 60 to 70% of all the money; and holds about 15% of the total national investment. As Jakarta accomplished higher than nation’s growth in economic status, the main sources of money came from private sector (95% of all development funding) and foreign investment (in 1996 totaled US$16.12 billion).

    Even though Indonesia’s economy is still rising, but it has slowed down since 1995 (Department of Foreign Affairs, 1996). The  slowing could be accounted in the construction and banking sectors as well as slackening output from the agriculture industry. As of now, Indonesia is reaching the end of the Sixth Five-Year Development Plan (Repelita VI)(see Appendix A), the nation’s economic grouwth is reaching an average of 6.2 percent per year. The nation’s per capita income will increase by 4.7 percent per year as estimated 22 percent of economic growth is from increased total factor productivity, 26 percent from increased numbers of workers and 52 percent from increased levels of capital stock. As Indonesia depends heavily on the production of rice as cash crop (see Fig. 3), less rice would slow down the infrastructure sector and manufacture sector. On the other hand, the government did include sustainable projects in its budget (see Fig. 4) as part of civil services. However, a heavy limitation comes from Indonesia’s existing debt (approx. at US$100 billion) which the government holds more than the private sector. Therefore, in order to pay back, Indonesia intends to increase interest payments and diversity its money mainly to Krakatau Steel (steel producer), and Aneka Tambang (mining). The Indonesian government is taking such actions to try to increase their profit margin as these are the prospective profitable industries right now. At the same time, the government also approved six big projects in the petrochemical industry totaling US$12 billion in investment (Department of Public Works, 1996).

    Economically, Indonesia seems to be trying to great control over its money as far as private sectors and foreign funding are concerned. However, due to its existing and future interest payments, Indonesia had to compromise its sustainable projects and turn its arrow toward the commercial industry (see Fig. 5) for potentially more profit that can be yielded to pay off the huge debt it bears. Nevertheless, with so many different investment projects that are projecting toward non-renewable resources, it’s going to add on a lot more pollution and environmental weights upon Indonesia’s nature. It may now be the optimal way to pay some monetary debts, but in the near future Indonesia will face greater and irreversible damages done to its nature that money won’t be able to buy back.

Figure. 3 East Java, BRB, and Indonesia – Sectoral Production, 1985
Figure. 4 Government Budget; Expenditures
Figure. 5 Sectoral Activities In 94/95 to 98/99

    Generally when people talk about Waste Management in industrialized countries, there must be a system that simply uses a permit if an industry produces a significant amount of chemical waste. There are appropriate government agencies that have proper authority specifying what the industries should do with its chemical wastes before they are discharged into the environment. However, it seems like Indonesia is still at a very primitive stage of developing such system.

    Not only there should be changes in the government policies, but the public and private sectors simply lack the expertise to develop the necessary specialized technologies to operate under proper procedures. Following specific standards may be difficult due to economic diversions and shortage of labor, resulting in unavailability to many sustainable policies. At the same time, even if there is awareness of the problems, it is also unlikely that as a typical industrial plant manager, he still will be unenthusiastic about investing in building and operating waste treatment facilities and give up revenue. Therefore, on technical aspects, Indonesia is still at a rudimentary stage of evolving toward a better sense of sustainability and environmentally friendly development. However, the main problems will remain as the level of HCH (Hexachlorcyclohexan) rises at a steady rate, Jakarta still lacks a sufficient water supply system, irreversible changes to ecosystems as they are removed by constructions to new factories as well as its increasing population.

    Indonesia wanted to create a "just-and-equitably-prosperous society in a material and spiritual sense" (Main Principles of Indonesia’s Development, see Appendix A) for its people to live in. Since 1969, Indonesia had started a series of plans trying to raise its economic status and improve its people’s living standards. Looking at the overall Indonesian society, we do see a lot of improvements such as decline in poverty and illiteracy rates, and there are significant economic growth since the 70’s. However, on all six "Five-year Plans" none was devoted to developing a sustainable environment by cutting down exploitation of natural resources or lowering carbon dioxide emission (see Appendix A).

    To establish sufficient future wastewater treatment programs, Jakarta will employ human intervention to help providing better sanitation. Comparing the cost effectiveness of different interventions, it is obvious that the sewerage system is the most economical and reliable countermeasure to manage wastewater in the urbanized area. However, undeveloped or potential redevelopment areas are not suitable for sewerage development as priorities are given to the developed areas.

    It is fundamental that sanitary projects should treat pollutants within its own areas, therefore, the selection of treatment sites should then be carefully chosen. There are nineteen sites that are selected suitable for Wastewater Treatment Plant by the Department of Public Works as recommendations from private sector (Department of Public Works, 1996)(see Fig. 6). These sites currently are used as flood control pond, fish pond, parks, bay, etc. (Sinotech, 1996). There are also different types of treatment methods available and different methods are recommended for different sites due to the nature of each site.

    A local sewerage system is called a Modular System, and combining several local sewerage systems makes up a Centralized     System. Each system would then employ a treatment type, either AL (Aerated Lagoon) or AS (Activated Sludge), depending on the size of land that is available and depending on the location of sites. In Jakarta, there are 17 sites that will be employing the AL type treatment for their larger land area and 2 sites will employ exclusively the AS type treatment (Sinotech, 1996).

Figure. 6 Potential Sites for Treatment Plan

A. Political

    As previously described, there are various government agencies providing inadequate efficiency in transmitting important documents to higher-level economists and policy makers. There are recommendations specifically focus upon the issue of data processing and representation to higher authorities (World Bank, 1996). Firstly, Indonesia may need to employ a pilot program where it will: 1. Adjust the formats of environmental and economic records so they will first go through the Central Government or Provincial Government offices; 2. Make existing environmental records more accessible to high-level economists and policy makers through the creation of central and provincial environmental archives and the expansion of environmental information complied by the Central Bureau of Statistics and the provincial bureaus; 3. Give greater emphasis on Sustainable Projects and recognition in the problem solving codes as first priorities (Asian Development Bank, 1996).

B. Economic

    Indonesia’s economic policies have been very admirable in many aspects. The effectiveness and improvements can be seen in the rise in nation’s overall economic status and income per capita (about US$650 nationwide). However, it could be further improved if more attention and recognition can be given to environmental sustainability as well as intersectoral optimization of development decisions. These can be achieved simply by establishing an interdepartmental information network.

    There should also then be improvements upon evaluation of these developmental programs. After defining the problems that Indonesia has economically, in my own opinions, there are three main recommendations: 1. The issue of sustainability should be included and declared as a fourth element to be added to Indonesia’s existing development trilogy (stability, growth and equity). 2. In order to give great attention to intersectoral optimization, investment decisions should go through formal systematic comparison of intersectoral trade-offs which are considered for environmental consequences and opportunity costs. 3. Conduct post-implementation evaluation that would determine an activity’s real cost-effectiveness and further identify valuable lessons to be applied in future project formulation. With the addition of above recommendations, Indonesia will have enhanced economic policies favoring sustainable projects.

    With limited financial and administrative resources, it will not be possible for the Indonesian government to take on every environmental issue with the same degree of urgency. The establishment of priorities should be based on a careful assessment of the costs and benefits involved (Asian Development Bank, 1996). On the basis of the recommendations contained in this report, the priorities can roughly be ranked: 1. Water supply and sanitation, 2. Industrial wastewater treatment, 3. Industrial pollution control, 3. The management of labor resources, 4. Improving governmental efficiencies, 5. Effectively reallocate available natural resources, 6. Raise education levels of Indonesians and, 7. Enhancement of the concepts of sustainability of global ecosystems and the protection of biodiveristy.

    None of the above recommendations can be achieved easily within short periods of time. Indonesia currently is approaching the end of the sixth Five Year Development Plan (REPELITA VI, see Appendix A) and current amounted investments in urban water supply, drainage, sewerage, and sanitation projects have summed to Rp. 2.0 trillion, which is about 0.2 % of Indonesia’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP)(World Bank, 1996). There have been improvements last year such as the removal of most subsidies on petroleum products which yielded savings of estimated US$1.5 billion in 1996, or 1.1% of Indonesia’s GDP. With the upcoming seventh Five Year Development plan, Indonesia will further improve its social-economic status and its environmental urgencies.

    Environmental issues can not be viewed by itself, surrounding factors all take essential parts in its success, Indonesia has been a leader among developing countries for its sustainable development strategies and putting the correct framework for support. However, inevitable damages and changes to the environment may require more than just planning and making preparations. Environmental issues need to be handled as priorities for development to sustain its status in environmental projections as well as enduring its social and economic progresses.

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