Mandy Cargile
Introduction
The Amazon River has been described as "O Rio Mar, the River
Sea" (Carmichael et al 1985). When considering the enormity of the size
of the river and the amount of water flowing from its mouth, this description
seems appropriate. From its
source in the Andes of southern Peru to its many mouths in northeastern
Brazil, the Amazon River flows over 4000 miles to the Atlantic Ocean. The
exact length is disputed because of the several routes possible through
the mouths at the coast. If the
southernmost mouth is used, the Amazon outdistances the Nile River
by 50 miles, making it the longest river in the world (Popescu 1991). The
river is deep and wide enough to accommodate ocean vessels for 2300 miles
up its length (Carmichael et al 1985).
An enormous amount of fresh water enters the Atlantic Ocean from the
Amazon River. Of the world’s fresh water supply, one fifth originates from
the Amazon (Carmichael et al 1985). The Atlantic Ocean receives this fresh
water at a rate of 4.5 trillion gallons every day, five times greater than
any other river flow in the world. The amount of water flowing from the
mouth each day would supply every household in the United States for over
five months (Van Dyk 1995). The force of this flow is great
enough to create an area of fresh water in the Atlantic for several
miles around the mouth (Carmichael et al 1985). Although the force of the
river is too strong to create a real delta at the mouth, the river drops
its sediment load up to 60 miles out to sea (Van Dyk 1995). All of the
mouths combined, the Amazon deposits its waters over an area 100 miles
wide (Van Dyk 1995). For early explorers, the Amazon truly must have appeared
to be not a river but a freshwater sea.
The earliest European explorers first traveled beyond the mouth of the Amazon in a quest for gold during the 1500’s. They came in search of the legendary city of El Dorado, "a mythical Nirvana allegedly ruled by a king clad in gold dust" (Stone 1985). However, El Dorado proved to be only a myth. In fact, no major gold deposits were found until this century (Centre for the Preservation of Indigenous Art, Culture, and Science, no date). Today, Sierra Pelada is the most well known gold mine in the Amazon
Basin, having had "the greatest and most spectacular gold rush of modern times" (Centre
for the Preservation of Indigenous Art, Culture, and Science, no date). In 1992, Brazil
alone mined 76,044 metric tons of gold (TED 1997).
The Current State of Gold Mining
The impacts on the Amazon River and coast from gold mining in the Basin are
both widespread and severe. At the current rate of exploitation, neither the coast and
river, the people dependent on the coast and river, nor the mining economy will last.
Goodland and Daly (1996) define sustainable development as, "development without
growth in throughput of matter and energy beyond regenerative and absorptive
capabilities." They divide capital into three categories that must each be maintained in
order to consider development sustainable: social capital, economic capital, and natural
capital (Goodland and Daly, 1996). According to this definition, the gold mining
countries of the Amazon Basin are in trouble, as the current methods being used threaten
all three types of capital. Brazil stands in an especially difficult position because the
effects of all mining in the Amazon Basin glows down the river to be concentrated at the
coast.
Environmental and Health Issues
Along with the direct detrimental effects of mining, such as general
environmental disturbance, the main culprit in gold mining problems is mercury used in
the mining process. Mercury contaminates the river and poisons everything coming into
contact with the contaminated water. The fish and wildlife in both the river and along the
coast ingest the mercury, become poisoned, and die. This wildlife provides a major food
source for natives living along the river and coast, often supplying the only protein in the
diets of the people. Commercial fishing along the coast also suffers as marine
populations fall with continued mercury contamination. Mercury poisoning also extends
to humans. When contaminated fish is eaten, the mercury enters the bloodstream of the
person. Bioaccumulation becomes a problem as mercury levels build up in animals and
humans that eat contaminated wildlife. The health effects of mercury poisoning prove to
be devastating.
The Amazon’s Social Capital
Goodland and Daly (1996) define social capital as, "the institutional cultural basis
for a society to function." They argue that the human environment as well as the natural
environment must be maintained. The Amazon region is an area with a high level of
social capital. From the large cities dotting the length of the river and coast, to the native
tribes so remote that few have ever come in contact with them, the Amazon Basin
possesses a high degree of cultural diversity to be maintained.
Four major cities are found along the Amazon River: Manaus, Santarem, Macapa,
and Belem. Two of these cities, Macapa and Belem, lie along the coast at the mouth of
the river. Manaus is the 12th largest city in Brazil with 1.340 million people. Belem
ranks as the 10th largest city with 1.480 million inhabitants (Schneider 1996). Along with
Belem and Macapa, many smaller cities are found along the mouth of the river. Marajo
Island, the largest island in the mouth, boasts five cities (Lucio, no date). The Amazon
River and coast support several cities, where the high concentrations of people depend in
many ways upon the water for their daily lives.
The River’s Role
People living in urban areas are not the only ones relying on the Amazon. Even
more dependent on the coast and river are the numerous native tribes of the region. With
each tribe offering its own unique culture, these people constitute a major portion of the
region’s social capital. Once the only inhabitants of the region, their numbers have been
greatly reduced with the influx of outside settlers since the first Europeans arrived.
Today their numbers account for only 0.3% of Brazil’s population, and tribal reserves
totaling 10% of the land area have been set aside to help preserve native cultures (TED
1997). For these people, the waters of the Amazon River and coast are a way of life.
They depend on the water as a major food source. Animal sources provide more than
68% of their protein intake, of which fish is the main source (Roosevelt 1994).
Numerous species of fish are available to the natives, including dorado, cacharas, pacu,
pintado, and jau (Lucio, no date). The river also functions as a water source and mode of
transportation. Given their dependency on the water, when the Amazon and its coast
suffer, the native tribes also suffer, for "theirs is the world of the river" (Van Dyk 1995).
The Amazon’s Economic Capital
Related to society and social capital is economic or financial capital. Like social
capital, aspects of Amazonian financial capital relate directly to the river and coast.
Urban Brazilian diets, like those of the natives, rely heavily on fish and seafood.
Commercial fishing along the coast is therefore and important and profitable industry.
Fish and shellfish such as lobster, king crab, oysters, and shrimp bring in profits (Lucio,
no date). Every year 800,000 metric tons of seafood is caught along the coast of the
Amazon (Microsoft Expedia, 1998).
Economics of Mining
Gold mining also provides a major source of income for the Amazon region. As
well as profits from exports, foreign investments in the mining industry have recently
grown (TED 1997). By the year 2000, it has been predicted that annual investments in
"mineral exploitations" will grow to 350 million US dollars, and "industry observers
predict a rush to Brazil by resource companies and the investment community" (Brazilian
Resources, Inc., no date). Demand for miners also creates job opportunities for over a
million workers (Greenpeace, no date). These two industries, fishing and gold mining,
both bring a large amount of money and jobs to the area. However, while one relies
entirely upon the health of the river and coast, the other presents a constantly increasing
threat to that health.
Amazonia’s Golden Natural Capital
Natural capital, defined by Goodland and Daly (1996), is "the stock of
environmentally provided assets…that provides a flow of useful goods or services."
Considering the amount of income and employment the mining of this natural resource
brings to the Amazon, gold proves to constitute an important part of Amazonia’s natural
capital. Miners seek gold in two sources: deposits found in rock, and gold-bearing
sediments in the river. Different methods must be utilized to obtain the gold from the
two sources.
Pit Mining
Exploitation of gold-bearing rock comes in the form of pit mines, the giant holes
in the earth commonly associated with mining. When gold is discovered, the surrounding
area is excavated, creating a large pit. The miners then separate the gold from the
excavated rock. This mining method leaves distinct impacts on the ecosystem beyond the
obvious scar on the earth’s surface. The river and, therefore, ultimately the coast are not
spared from the damage caused by pit mines.
Before the mining itself even begins the river and coast suffer. The mines bring
urbanization to the rain forests of the Amazon Basin. In order for the mine to operate,
significant changes must first take place. Large tracts of forest must be cleared. As well
as destroying the natural ecosystem, this clearing allows greater runoff during rains.
Under normal conditions, the roots of the vegetation break up the soil, separating grains
of soil. The spaces between grains created allow water to be absorbed into the soil.
When vegetation is removed, the soil compacts, losing its absorptive capabilities.
Additionally, vegetation slows erosion by sheltering the ground from the direct impact of
rainfall, and the roots help hold loose soil in place. The removal of vegetation increases
the rate of erosion in the watershed and the amount of sediment carried to the river. With
the high annual rainfall characteristic of the Amazon Basin, the potential for major
sediment loading of the river is possible.
Urbanization also introduces pollution, both point source and non-point source.
Non-point source pollution, carried to the river by runoff, becomes very problematic
when the increased runoff rate is combined with the high rain levels of the area. A power
source is also necessary for the functioning of the mines. Hydroelectric dams along the
tributaries of the Amazon often provide a solution for this problem, though creating
addition troubles for the river and coast (Cleary, no date). Building dams along the river
affects natural flooding, a feature the rainforest ecosystem of the Amazon Basin is
dependent upon. Dams also create barriers preventing the migration and movement of
wildlife in the river. All of the damages incurred along the river flow with the waters to
the coast, where all of the abuses along its entire 4000-mile journey become
concentrated.
Fluvial Mining
Fluvial mining presents more significant problems for the river and coast. River
sediments produce a large quantity of gold. Each year between 40 and 200 tons of gold is
extracted from Amazonian river sediments (Greenpeace, no date). In addition to the
industrial pollution due to increased settlement in the mining area, fluvial mining
introduces large amounts of mercury into the environment, creating problems not only for
the immediate area, but also the entire river and coast downstream. All creatures
dependent on the river feel the effects of the mining. The coast especially suffers,
because the contamination of all the mines along the river concentrates at the mouth.
The Fluvial Mining Process
Fluvial mining begins with the dredging of gold-laden sediments from the
riverbed. Sediments are then filtered through a series of specialized sieves coated with
mercury. The gold in the sediment bonds to the mercury in the sieve, becoming
separated from the sediments. The sediment passes through and is deposited back into
the river (TED 1997). Over 90% of the gold contained in the dredged sediment can be
captured in the sieves, a process known as amalgamation (Viega and Meech 1996). The
gold and mercury amalgam must then be separated after amalgamation. The
gold/mercury amalgam is placed in a tool called a retort and heated. The mercury
vaporizes, leaving the gold purified and ready to be marketed (TED 1997).
Figure 1
~~~~~~~~~~~~
………………... dredging m
gold-laden sediments
……….
mercury-coated ……. gold/mercury
retort
…………….
waste sediments
+heat
~~~~~~~~~~~~~
…………………
vaporized mercury
……………..
purified …
gold ……
…………
The Fluvial Mining Problem
Both steps in the fluvial process contribute to mercury contamination of the river
and coast. During the first step, the sediment forced through the mercury sieves becomes
contaminated. This mercury-laden waste sediment is then dumped directly into the river
to spread downstream (Greenpeace, no date). The second phase affects the atmosphere
as well as the waters. If the retort used to vaporize the mercury does not completely seal,
gaseous mercury escapes into the air (TED 1997). Of the total amount of mercury used,
approximately 75% is lost to the atmosphere in the heating process (Greenpeace, no
date). After the vaporized mercury leaks to the atmosphere, rain washes the
contamination out of the air and onto the land (Greenpeace, no date). The runoff,
increased due to urbanization, flows to the river, further increasing the mercury levels of
the water.
The History of Mercury Use
Use of mercury amalgamation in the Amazon first appeared in the early 19th
century, having originated in Great Britain (Veiga and Meech 1996). Today as much as
200 tons of the toxic metal can be released into the environment in a single year (TED
1997). An estimated 3000 tons of mercury have contaminated the Amazon since the
1950’s (Page 1995). A general rule accepted by experts is that in the process of
producing a single pound of gold, two pounds of mercury leak into the environment
(TED 1997).
Mercury Problems of the Past
Notorious for causing adverse health effects, mercury is a highly toxic heavy
metal. For as long as mercury has been used, health problems have followed. Mercury
poisoning was once known as Mad Hatters’ Disease, due to the high number of hat
makers showing similar symptoms. These symptoms were eventually traced back to
mercury used in the tanning of the leather used for the hats. In a more recent example,
the fishing village of Minamata in southern Japan faced major problems with mercury.
Between the 1930’s and the 1960’s, local industries dumped tons of mercury into the
coastal waters (Page 1995). The effects on the villagers were devastating. One thousand
deaths and many more illnesses were blamed on the pollution (Page 1995). The mercury
had a teratogenic effect, elevating the rate of birth defects to a high level. Cerebral palsy
afflicted one half of the babies born during that period. If the dumping of mercury into
the Amazon River continues unchecked, nothing will prevent similar horror stories from
occurring in the river and coastal communities of the Amazon. Perhaps the most
alarming news is that according to some estimates, three times the amount of mercury
dumped off the coast of Minamata, Japan, have already been released into the Amazon
River (Page 1995).
Mercury Poisoning
Elemental Mercury Exposure
Exposure to mercury used in mining occurs in two forms: elemental mercury and
methylmercury. Both methods of exposure are highly toxic. Mercury in its elemental
form is easily absorbed by the body when inhaled (TED 1997). Elemental mercury
presents a major concern for the workers who directly handle the metal. Especially
vulnerable are the smelters who burn the mercury/gold amalgam. When unsealed retorts
are used, the vapors escape into the air, directly exposing the smelters to the toxic fumes
(TED 1997). Escaping fumes additionally place the surrounding population at risk of
exposure through inhalation. Elemental mercury also finds its way into the river. Like
most air pollutants, gaseous mercury can be washed out of the atmosphere during rain
showers. The toxic rain falls to the earth, then being absorbed into the soil or flowing as
runoff into the rivers. Once in the water, the mercury is ingested and metabolized by all
life forms in the river, from plankton to large fish, leading to the formation of
methylmercury (TED 1997).
Methylmercury Exposure
At this point the extent and severity of the poisoning skyrockets for two reasons.
First, methylmercury is the more dangerous of the two forms (TED 1997). The human
body absorbs methylmercury much more readily than elemental mercury, elevating the
chances of poisoning (TED 1997). Secondly, the poisoning has now entered the food
web at all levels. Plankton, the basis for the entire web, up to large fish, the main food
source of the local human population are affected (Greenpeace, no date). The number of
potential victims thus grows substantially.
Methylmercury results when the mercury contained in the filtered sediment is
ingested and metabolized by animals in the river, creating an organic compound (TED
1997). This compound, chemical formula CH3Hg-, can then combine with other
chemicals to create even more complex compounds (Walhjali 1997). The animals that
metabolize the mercury contain high levels of methylmercury in their tissues. When
these contaminated animals are consumed, the predator retains the methylmercury in its
own tissues. As higher predators continue to feed on contaminated animals, the levels of
methylmercury passed on rise, a process known as biomagnification. Bioaccumulation
occurs, resulting in animals containing major methylmercury contamination levels.
Many animals are not able to survive the levels of methylmercury accumulated. Humans
are not immune to the problem. When contaminated fish is eaten the methylmercury,
usually at very high levels at this point, enters the bloodstream of the person, who then
suffers the effects of mercury poisoning. Considering that fish provide a staple in the
diets of many people living along the river and coast, the gold mine pollution threatens
not only the wildlife of the river and coast, but also a great number of people (TED
1997).
Symptoms and Effects of Mercury Poisoning
The symptoms and effects that plague the victims of mercury poisoning, known
as Minamata disease after the tragedy in Japan, are devastating and painful. The direct
inhalation of elemental mercury that so many of the miners face irritates the lung tissue,
leading to dangerous lung infections accompanied by serious coughing and chest pains
(TED 1997). Once mercury enters the bloodstream, the central nervous system is the
main site of attack. The brain itself undergoes significant damage, including softening,
hemorrhaging, and edema (Walhjali 1997). Symptoms such as neurological disorders,
unsteadiness, and tunnel vision indicate lower levels of exposure (Greenpeace, no date).
When the exposure progresses further, the damage to the central nervous system becomes
more apparent. Tremors, weakness, incoordination, memory loss, and further
psychological changes follow continued contamination (TED 1997). Nerve cells are
destroyed, including cerebellar granular cells, cells of the cerebral cortex, the area striata,
and cerebral nuclei (Walhjali 1997).
Other organs as well are affected. The liver and kidneys, over stressed with the
efforts of trying to remove the toxin, begin to fail and degrade (Walhjali 1997). Bone
marrow growth slows, inhibiting the immune system and subjecting the victim to further
infections (Walhjali 1997). Effects are not constrained to a single generation. Birth
defects such as deformations, cerebral palsy, and brain damage are possible (Greenpeace,
no date). Unfortunately, low level exposure is not easily detected. Serious permanent
damage can occur before any warning signs are visible. Death is the ultimate
consequence in many cases (Greenpeace, no date).
Other Effects of Gold Mining
Dredging
The method by with the river sediment is obtained deserves further discussion.
The miners dredge the sediments from the river bottom (TED 1997). In the process the
entire river bottom ecosystem is disturbed. Formerly clear waters become murky and
turbid, becoming "rivers of opaque golden brown" (Greenpeace, no date). The resulting
increased sediment load also creates problems for the organisms living in the water,
smothering the fish and other animals (TED 1997). Dredging damages the river bottom
itself by the scraping action. Gouges scar the river bottom, and rocks and other features
are broken up (Dayton et al 1994). Life forms living on the river floor will be either
killed or severely damaged by the crushing forces of the dredges (Dayton et al 1994).
The increased sediment load then flows downstream, smothering life further
along the river’s length. In addition to the sediment stirred up by the dredging process,
even more sediment enters the river due to the mining. The clearing of the rainforest for
the mining facilities increases erosion. The eroded sediment from the land is carried with
the rain runoff into the river. Contaminated sediment that has been run through the sieves
during the mining process is also dumped back into the river, further increasing the
turbidity of the water. This sediment load must then be deposited somewhere
downstream. The deposition of the sediment elsewhere changes the ecosystem in that
location as well. Thus, the consequences of actions at one location spread and strike
other areas unassociated with the activity.
The Coast
The coast of the Amazon Basin, where the mouth of the river pours its waters into
the ocean, faces all of the problems of the river. However, the situation is actually more
serious for the coast than for individual sites along the river. At the mouth of the river,
all of the effects of activity taking place along the river’s entire length become
concentrated. A bottleneck of pollution forms. With the force of the river’s flow, this
contamination can be pushed 60 miles into the Atlantic Ocean (Van Dyk 1995). Once it
has reached the ocean, the potential of the contamination to do harm grows yet again. A
whole new ecosystem waits to face the damage caused by gold mines thousands of miles
upstream.
Resulting Problems in the Environment
The implications of the mercury contamination of the Amazon are widespread. A
single point on the river is never affected. Mercury leaked into the river spreads far
downstream. Over 200 miles away from contamination sites, high levels of mercury
have been measured in fish (TED 1997). Once the contamination reaches the coast, the
problem radiates from the mouth of the river out into the ocean-wide expanse. The tidal
currents along the coast often flow with a velocity of over one meter per second, moving
water and pollution a great distance in a short time (Nittrouer et al 1991). Hundreds of
kilometers from the mouth of the Amazon, a plume of water originating from the river
can be identified (Nittrouer et al 1991). The complex network of ocean currents could
carry the contamination around the world. The force of the river’s flow combined with
ocean currents disperses the contamination over a wide expanse.
The resulting poisoning further expands the affected area. All life in the
contaminated water absorbs mercury. At the top of the food web, levels of mercury
found in the tissues of organisms increases due to bioaccumulation and biomagnification.
Animals removed from the river for consumption spread mercury contamination over a
greater distance. By contaminating the base of the food web—the plankton—the area of
the damage due to mercury leaks is expanded. The entire ecosystem of the Amazon
Basin and the surrounding coastal areas are disrupted.
Dredging up Trouble
The increased sediment load caused by dredging and dumping of sediment
presents several problems. Not only is the life in the water killed through suffocation
(TED 1997), but processes and systems of the interface of the river and ocean are
affected (Nittrouer et al 1991). Where the river meets the ocean a unique underwater
delta is created (Nittrouer et al 1991). With elevated levels of sediment deposition, the
ecosystem of this delta will change. Mouths of large rivers such as the Amazon are also
the location of many important oceanic processes, such as biological production and
geochemical cycling (Nittrouer et al 1991). These processes, found only at the mouths of
these great rivers, prove to be heavily influenced by sediment discharges from the rivers
(Nittrouer et al 1991). Continued deposition of increased loads of sediment could
imbalance the systems, causing a wave of disruption throughout the oceans. Gold mining
along the Amazon could potentially impact an area well beyond the original
contamination sites.
The Fishing Industry
An obvious victim of mercury contamination is the fishing industry. In Brazil,
800,000 metric tons of seafood is caught every year (Microsoft Expedia 1998). However,
as mercury poisoning kills the life in the river and produces products unsuitable for
market, these numbers will fall. If contaminated seafood enters the market, the resulting
illnesses will inhibit the demand for seafood. Decreased production combines with
decreased demand, and leads to falling revenues. As profits shrink, employers will be
forced to downsize in order to save money. Many people employed by the fishing
industry will be left without jobs. If the fish of the Amazon River and coast are
contaminated and unusable, fishers will become unnecessary, requiring the people to look
elsewhere to support themselves and their families.
Mangroves
The impact suffered by Amazonian mangroves also affects the fishing industry.
Brazil contains the second largest expanse of mangrove forests worldwide with 13,400
square kilometers, or 7.3% of the world’s total (Costa-Pierce 1997). Mangroves are
known to be productive areas for fisheries. An important function of these mangroves is
to serve as nurseries for fish and other aquatic animals by providing shelter and food in
the form of detritus. Another characteristic of mangroves is a high rate of sedimentation.
When this sediment is contaminated with mercury, the juveniles depending on the
mangroves receive high levels of exposure. Juveniles are adversely affected before they
even reach economically valuable sizes and ages.
The sedimentation found in mangroves also serves to hold soil in place.
Mangroves thus provide protection for the shoreline against erosion, both during storms
and gradual wearing. However, the continual deposition of mercury-laden sediment in
the mangroves cannot promote a healthy environment. The mangroves, like the fish, will
be poisoned. As the mangroves die off, erosion of the shoreline will increase.
Contaminated Food Supplies
The contamination of aquatic life, especially fish, severely threatens the people
living in the Amazon Basin. Fish are a main food source for Amazonian people,
particularly the poor (TED 1997). When the primary food source contains mercury, the
people are exposed to high levels over time. These people have no idea of the
contamination. If the presence of mercury were known, the task of finding a replacement
for such a major source of protein would be overwhelming. The problem would
especially stress the poor, who do not posses the means to purchase alternative foods.
Minamata Disease
The true extent of mercury poisoning in the Amazonian people is unknown.
Poisoning is often not detected if the level is not high (TED 1997). Constant, low levels
of exposure may be missed, only to be noticed when the accumulation grows high
enough to cause serious health problems. If it could only be detected early enough, the
poisoning could be treated before problems arise.
Mercury poisoning is also often misdiagnosed (TED 1997). Rural doctors may
not be educated on the symptoms of mercury poisoning (TED 1997). Minamata disease
symptoms closely resemble the symptoms characteristic of other diseases common to the
area, such as malaria. These diseases are so pervasive that people often treat themselves
with medicine from local stores (TED 1997). Victims of the poisoning may mistake their
symptoms and turn to these medicines, never realizing what the problem truly is. Many
people suffering from the consequences of gold mining may thus be both misdiagnosed
and mistreated.
Additionally, people not living in the vicinity of a mining area may not suspect
gold mining as a cause for their illnesses. However, tests run in villages located
significant distances from mining sites indicate that mercury often is a problem in spite of
the distances. In the fishing village of Jacareacanga, located 100 kilometers from the
nearest mine, blood and urine samples showed elevated mercury levels in inhabitants.
Exceptionally elevated levels were found in 16% of those tested (Greenpeace, no date).
Blood samples taken from children in the Kayapo tribe contained mercury levels at over
double the tolerable upper limits (Greenpeace, no date).
Natives vs. Miners
Gold mining introduces outsiders into areas of the Amazon Basin previously
having minimal, if any, exposure to the outside world. The cultures of the natives are
altered and lost as outside ways and materials are brought in. Some natives may abandon
their native ways in order to experience further the new world and its promises (Centre
for the Preservation of Indigenous Art, Culture, and Science, no date). Mining
companies often target traditional tribal lands for exploitation. Natives revolt against the
influx of outsiders and the threat to their lands. Clashes between the miners and the
natives sometimes turn violent, and many instances of massacres of natives have been
reported (Centre for the Preservation of Indigenous Art, Culture, and Science, no date).
The purity of these cultures is fragile, and every exposure the miners bring leaves a major
impact.
The miners bring more than tales of the cities and modern products. Several
diseases have been introduced to the native population by miners. Without any previous
experience with these illnesses, the natives have no immunity to the diseases and often
succumb. Diseases such as measles, tuberculosis, malaria, influenza, and venereal
disease now plague the natives (Centre for the Preservation of Indigenous Art, Culture,
and Science, no date; Cleary, no date). Gold mining in the Amazon kills both the culture
and the people themselves.
International Concerns
Gold mining in the Amazon raises a question that has existed since the first
European explorers arrived: Who has sovereignty over the Amazon Basin? Foreign
investments support much of the mining occurring along the river. Should foreigners be
allowed to exploit the Basin to the detriment of the local people? The damage is not
simply local, however. Many of the Basin’s offerings are beneficial worldwide. Over
half of the world’s plant and animal species are found in the Basin (TED 1997). Many
important medicines have originated from these species. The river provides 20% of the
fresh water entering the world’s oceans, a function essential to marine ecosystems (TED
1997). Once the contamination reaches the ocean, the pollution is then free to circulate
around the globe. When the Amazon itself if affected by gold mining, the entire world is
impacted.
Brazil itself faces international problems. Nations on the fringe of the Basin can
exploit the river, and the aftereffects simply flow out of their borders. All of the
consequences of mining in neighboring countries converge in Brazil. When the
contamination and pollution concentrates at the mouth of the river, Brazil receives the
brunt of the blow. However, Brazil cannot place all of the blame on its neighbors, for it
contributes to the problem on a large scale itself.
Regulation Attempts
Attempts have been made to regulate the use of mercury in the Amazon.
Unfortunately, with 2.7 million square miles of area, mines in the Amazon Basin are
often remote (TED 1997). Regulation of the mines and enforcement of the laws is
therefore difficult. Limits have also been set on the amount of mercury imported into the
area. Since all mercury must be imported, this measure would appear to be an effective
control (Greenpeace, no date). However, black markets for mercury sprung up as soon as
the importation limits went into effect, undermining any benefits from the restrictions. In
general, the government lacks the resources necessary to effectively regulate the industry
and enforce the laws.
Hope for the Future
There is hope for the future. Improvements in the actual mining processes have
been made. Options do exist in the retort used to separate the mercury from the gold. A
closed retort that seals completely and recycles 96 to 99% of the mercury is available
(TED 1997; Greenpeace, no date). This tool must be supplied to the miners.
Unfortunately, the miners often do not accept the new tool, choosing rather to stay with
what they are familiar with. Other filters and safety devices can be used to reduce
exposure to miners. Further education in safety measures and skills is needed for the
miners to improve their processes and reduce contamination.
Mining without the use of mercury is also viable. Other amalgamation agents do
exist. However, these other agents must be tested to ensure that poisoning of another
form will not follow. For example, cyanide and arsenic have both been used in mining,
but the environment suffers from both much as in the case of mercury (Smith 1998;
Greenpeace, no date). Other methods of mining without mercury or other amalgamation
agents are possible and need to be developed. These methods will require further training
of miners.
Government controls could also be effective. Greater resources will be needed
for these controls to be enforced. However, spending the money for prevention will
likely be cheaper than trying to correct all of the resulting problems in the future. Funds
from environmental groups present a possible solution for the problem. The complete
impact of the gold mining needs to be impressed upon the important officials making the
decisions for the countries. Perhaps once the officials recognize how far-reaching the
problems are and how devastating the effects can become they will reassess their
priorities and realize where their attention needs to be focused. Preservation will be
worth the money. If the contamination is not halted, the Amazon Basin and coast will
suffer so greatly that all benefits derived from the area will disappear.
Recommendations
First and foremost, the contamination must be stopped. Even the greatest efforts
to remove the mercury from the environment will succeed if the mercury continues to
leak into the river. The miners must be persuaded to accept the closed retort as a
replacement for the open retorts currently in use. Other safety devices should be
installed. Safety training for miners will be essential for these approaches to work.
Government inspections and regulation must increase. With the number of
environmental groups existing around the world, fundraising opportunities to support the
governments’ actions are endless. Areas free from mining should be protected. Lands
within tribal reservations should be off limits to mining, to protect both the environment
and the natives. The growth of the problem must first be halted before it can be solved.
Once the contamination has ceased, attention can be focused on remediating what has
already occurred.
Intensified research is a necessity. Better mining processes are crucial, both for
the separation of the gold and the obtaining of the sediments. Methods for the removal of
mercury after contamination has occurred are vital. Further medical research is need to
develop ways to detect poisoning before large accumulations have formed, and to
determine what can be done once poisoning is detected. Alternate food sources should be
researched to provide safe food for those dependent on the river and coast.
Education seems to be the key. Miners need to be informed of the consequences
of their actions on the surrounding environment, populations, and themselves. They need
to know that they are poisoning themselves and their families. The people of the Amazon
Basin and coast need to be told of what is occurring in their backyards in order to gain
their support in the fight against the problem. People in other parts of the world need to
know the situation, for the problems are global. Aiming the education globally would
immensely increase support for the fight. Doctors should be educated on the effects and
symptoms of mercury poisoning so that diagnoses could be more accurate and occur
earlier.
With increased knowledge of the total effects gold mining in the Amazon,
supporters of the mining may change their views. For example, as late as 1985 Robert
Goodland proclaimed mining in the Amazon as, "one of the most appropriate forms of
development that are compatible with the environment of Amazonia" (Stone 1985).
However, mining in the Amazon has proven to be incompatible with the Amazonian
environment and beyond. Goodland’s recent definition of sustainable development
conflicts with his earlier opinion on Amazonian mining. If asked today, Goodland would
most likely denounce what he formerly supported. The problems caused by gold mining
in the Amazon are widespread; now the knowledge of these problems needs to be spread
just as widely.
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