Introduction

    According to Safina (1995), it was once believed that the fishes of the world’s oceans were inexhaustible. This error of thinking by fishers has caused a reduction of numerous fish populations to extreme low levels, destabilized marine ecosystems, decreased biodiversity, and impoverished many coastal communities (Safina, 1995). We humans are exacerbating the problem by continuing to degrade and deplete the ocean’s habitat and resources. Fisheries are extracting fish from the oceans at a greater rate than the number produced (Safina, 1995). As populations increase, the demand for fish increases as well. Because wildfish regenerate at rates determined by nature, attempts to increase their supply to the marketplace must eventually run into limits (Safina, 1995). The ocean’s fish have become the limiting factor. As the fish population decreases and as the number of fishers increase, the catch per unit effort of each fisher decreases (Paw, 1991). The decreasing CPUE has led some fishers to resort to destructive fishing methods, such as fish blasting, cyanide poisoning, and trawlers. The term for this type of fishery exploitation is known as Malthusian overfishing (Dayton, 1995). The reason why many fisheries prefer these methods is because of the large yields produced. At the same time, they produce high yields of non-target organisms and bycatch. In most cases the bycatch is discarded back into the ocean, which adds more pollution to the waters and increases eutrophication. All three methods have the ability of altering the natural ecosystem, which is lethal to marine organisms that cannot survive in the altered habitats.

    If overfishing persists the loss of many marine organisms is inevitable. The loss could be detrimental to the environment and the people who rely on the ocean’s resources for subsistence. The loss of just one organism can disrupt a complex food chain. Not only does it affect the ecosystem, but also it affects us. The ocean’s resources alone provide the world with more protein than beef, chicken, or pork (Dayton, 1995). This is especially true for the Philippines where fish accounts for more than 50% of protein intake (Hunt, 1996). Continued depletion of our fishes can lead to economic and social problems for those who depend heavily on the ocean’s resources.

    In order to prevent habitat degradation and the depletion of our natural resources management plans must be implemented. The preservation of our oceans is needed to ensure the livelihood of those who rely on the oceans for income and food. It is important to preserve our oceans and the marine life they sustain for aesthetic purposes and in maintaining genetic diversity and biodiversity. The overfishing problems associated with the world’s oceans are evident in the Lingayen Gulf, Philippines.

The Philippines

    The Philippines is an archipelago, consisting of more than 7000 islands and islets (Compton’s Reference Collection, 1996). The two largest islands Luzon and Mindano comprise more than 70% of the land area and contain more than 70% of the population. One key feature of the Philippines is its extensive coastline. At 21,500 miles, the Philippines is known for having the longest discontinuous coastline (Compton’s Reference Collection, 1996). This vast coastline hosts 60 harbors; half of which are developed and extensively used. Beneath these waters lies a plethora of natural resources, which have been harvested by the people of the Philippines for many years. The natural resources found in the in the oceans provide food and generate income for the many people living along the coast. One very important body of water in the Philippines is the Lingayen Gulf.

Lingayen Gulf

    The Lingayen Gulf is a semi-enclosed body of water located in the northern part of Luzon Island and has an area of 2100km² (Guarin, 1991). Lingayen Gulf spans over two provinces, Pangasinan and La Union. There are a total of 18 municipalities of the two provinces, which occupy an area of 1755km² (Guarin, 1991). The total population is about 2.5 million, and a large portion of that population resides in the coastal cities and municipalities (Paw, 1991). The Agno, Budd, Patalan, and Dagupan rivers drain into the Gulf resulting in a number of estuaries. These estuaries serve as breeding grounds for several of the organisms found in the Lingayen Gulf. Coral reefs line the western side of the gulf, and white, sandy beaches line the eastern side. Such characteristics make the Lingayen Gulf a good fishing ground and tourist spot. The livelihood of many Filipinos depends on the Gulf. The Lingayen Gulf provides an essential source of food, income, and jobs for those residing along the coast.

    There has been heated debate on the conditions and problems of the Lingayen Gulf. The Lingayen houses some of the most diverse marine ecosystems in the world, but because of the stress put upon the Lingayen Gulf the ecosystem is in danger. Over the years the fishfolk population has been increasing at an alarming rate. (Figure 1).

    The lack of alternative livelihood is the main reason why the Lingayen Gulf experiencing overpopulation. Because the Philippines is a less developed country the economy is much worse than a more developed country like the U.S. Average monthly incomes are US$128-180 per month, and 50% of the families are below the poverty line, fishing the Lingayen Gulf serves as the only means of survival (Paw, 1991). The lack of alternative livelihood has forced many to move to the coastal areas. As the number of fishers increases, the catch per unit effort decreases. This has led many Filipino fishers to use destructive fishing methods, such as cyanide poisoning, fish blasting, and trawlers. Trawlers are used by most commercial fisheries because of the large yields they produce. Such destructive methods have resulted in environmental degradation.

    In order to have a sustainable environment, management plans must be implemented. As Goodland and Daly specify (1996), environmental sustainability is often disregarded when economic and social problems exist. The people of the Lingayen Gulf continue to practice destructive fishing methods even though they are aware of the environmental problems that may result. The concern of the Filipinos is on making a living. Other problems are ignored. Management plans concerning economic, social, and environmental sustainability must be implemented. The three disciplines are closely linked that if one is ignored, reaching a sustainable Lingayen Gulf becomes a problem.

Social Aspects

Demography

    Being a less developed country, the population of the Philippines is expected to be high. Compared to more developed countries, the Philippines has a higher birth rate, natural increase, and a lower doubling time. (Table 1) The rate of natural increase is the birth rate minus the death rate, implying the annual rate of population growth without regard for migration. The Philippines exhibits a large population and a low gross national product. These two factors are responsible for the increasing number of fishers in the Lingayen Gulf. The poor economy and lack of alternative livelihood has led many Filipinos to resort to fishing. The increasing population puts a demand on the natural resources, and environmental problems develop. According to Dayton (1995), "fishing typically does not require land ownership and because it remains, in general, open to all, it is often the employer of last resort in the developing world- an occupation when there are no other options."
 

Country	Population Mid 1997  (millions)	Natural Rate  Of  Increase %	Doubling  Time in  Years	Per Capita GNP  1995  $US
Philippines	73.4	2.3	30	1,050
USA	267.7	0.6	116	26,980

(Population Reference Bureau, 1997)

The importance of fish to the people of the Lingayen Gulf

    Fish and other seafoods are the principle sources of protein in the average Filipino’s diet. According to Hunt (1996), fish make up 50% of protein intake of Filipinos. The annual per capita consumption of seafoods is about 70 pounds, twice the national average for the Southeast Asia region (Compton’s Reference, 1996). About 80% of the fish are consumed fresh and rest is salted, dried, or smoked.

    The fish caught from the Lingayen Gulf not only serve as a source of protein, but is also a source of income for several industries such as small scale fisheries and brackish water aquaculture of shellfish and finfish. The fish serve both the local and export markets. The Lingayen Gulf’s coral reefs serve the tourism industry, and provide 70% of the world’s supply of marine fish for the aquarium industry (International Development Research Centre, 1997). Clearly the Lingayen Gulf is important to the people of the Philippines.

Technical Aspects

    According to Goodland and Daly (1996), "environmental sustainability seeks to improve the human welfare and social sustainability by protecting the sources of raw materials and ensuring that the sinks for human wastes are not exceeded, in order to prevent harm to humans. The main goal of environmental sustainability is to maintain natural capital. Natural capital is our natural environment and is defined as the stock of environmentally provided assets". It is important to maintain natural capital because our very own existence depends on a stable and sustainable natural resource base.

    Managing a sustainable Lingayen Gulf requires sustaining it socially, economically, and environmentally. The natural capital of the Lingayen Gulf includes its coral reefs and the marine life. It is important to maintain the natural resources of the Lingayen Gulf because they provide an essential source of food, income, and jobs for those residing along the coast. In order to achieve an environmentally sustainable Lingayen Gulf, its natural capital must me maintained. Overfishing must be prevented and the organisms that are harvested must be allowed to regenerate.

Natural Capital

    Lingayen Gulf has been subdivided into three sectors. Sector one starts from Silaqui Island to Sual and consists of hard, coralline bottom substrates and uneven topography. Most of the gulf’s coral reefs, seagrass beds, and algal flats are found in this sector. Sector two starts from Labrador to San Fabian and has mostly soft silt, muddy substrates, and shallow, gradually sloping depths. Inland brackish water fishponds connect directly to the gulf in this sector. Sector three includes all towns up to San Fernando and is characterized by sandy coraline bottom (NAMRIA, 1997).

Natural Capital and Sustainability

    With the increasing population, lack of alternative livelihood, and poverty in the Philippines, more and more people are moving to the coastal areas of the Lingayen Gulf to seek its natural resources. Unfortunately this population growth has had its toll on the Lingayen Gulf. The increasing population and the demand for its natural resources has contributed to habitat degradation. Overfishing and the methods used to harvest the fish, such as cyanide blasts, have caused the massive destruction of the coral reefs found in the gulf. The degradation such a pristine habitat is alarming because the coral reefs provide numerous benefits.

Coral reefs

    With 488 of the 500 known coral species contained in the Philippines, of which many are found in the Lingayen Gulf, the country’s marine ecosystems are globally important for marine biodiverstiy conservation (Conservation International). Coral reefs are responsible for harbouring a rich diversity of species. Some 35,000-60,000 species are found in these ecosystems and thousands more still unidentified (International Development Research Centre, 1997). The conservation of biodiversity is important in both economic and ethical terms. Biodiversity ensures that new foods, new resources, and new genetic capabilities will propagate. Maintaining biodiversity in the coral reefs of the Lingayen is important because reefs are a source of potential medicines (BWF online). Researchers have identified a substance in a red sponge that could help fight the AIDS virus.

    The people of the Philippines depend on these reefs for food and income as stated previously. A healthy reef the length of a football field can feed 800 people a year, whereas a deteriorated reef of the same size can only support 200 people (IDRC, 1997). The coral reefs also support the tropical and food-fishing industries. The reefs are responsible for 70% of the world’s supply of marine fish for the aquarium industry (IDRC, 1997). Particularly in the western side of the gulf the coral reefs are an important tourist attraction. Aside from being a tourist attraction, the coral reefs protect coastal communities from storm waves thrown up by typhoons.

Mangroves

    Along the coast of the Lingayen Gulf are mangroves. Serving as breeding grounds for shrimp, prawn, milkfsih, and Tilapia, they enhance the biodiversity of the Lingayen Gulf. Aside from enhancing biodiversity, mangroves have contributed significantly to the well-being of coastal communities through products used for fuel, construction, fishing, agriculture forage for livestock, paper, medicines, textile, leather, and food (Primavera, 1993). When complete systems are considered mangroves reach figures worth $US 1000-11,000 (Primavera,1993). However, fisheries only recognize fish as being capital, and disregard the other natural capital. As a result, mangroves have been destroyed to make room for aquaculture. Commercial important fishes such as Milkfish and Tilapia are grown on these fish farms.

Commercial Important Fishes

    The Lingayen Gulf is one of the major fishing grounds and aquaculture production areas in the Philippines. The principal commercial species of marine life are tuna, albacore, shrimp and prawn, scad, sardine, anchovy, slipmouth, yellowfish, herring, crabs, and mussels. In recent years tuna and shrimp have been among the twenty Philippine exports by value. Milkfish (Chanos chanos), Tilapia, prawns, shrimps, and siganids are some of the organisms cultured in the fishponds along the coast of the Lingayen Gulf (Aquainvs, 1997). Fishponds in brackish water provide about one twelfth of the total annual catch (Paw, 1991). Of the species caught on inland waters, the most common are milkfish and tilapia.

    Milkfish culture in brackish ponds has been practiced for many years and the production has been increased through the conversion of swamps into fishponds. Thus, a decrease in natural capital. The only sources of fry to stock these ponds are wild-caught fry, and cultured fry from Taiwan. One problem with the culturing milkfish is the annual shortage of milkfish fry. The popularity of milkfish among culturalists is due to several factors; among them it’s tolerance to temperature change, ability to survive in low oxygen environments, tolerance to a wide range of salinities, and especially its diet. (Aquainvs, 1997). The milkfish can be considered a generalist feeder. Another important quality of milkfish is that they are among the most disease-free of all cultured animals unlike shrimp and prawn, which are easily prone to diseases. Because of a combination of devastating virus outbreaks and declining prices many companies in the Philippines have pulled out of shrimp production. Instead they are harvested in the open seas, rather than cultured.

    The Philippines is the world’s largest single producer of Tilapia. Tilapia is widely farmed in freshwater in the Philippines. Brackishwater farming of tilapia is completely undeveloped. However some tilapia are harvested from the brackishwaters, including the Lingayen Gulf. Most tilapia harvested from the brackish waters are by-catch that enter prawn and milkfish farms as pests (CBIE/BCEI, 1997). Tilapia is ideal for fishponds because it matures in about four months (CBIE/BCEI, 1997). Similar to the milkfish it can thrive in nearly all kinds of water. An examination of growth rates and production performance in the Philippines revealed poor over performance of Philippine tilapia in brackishwater (CBIE/BCEI, 1997). Lack of a suitable species or strain was the primary constraint. Performance of brackishwater and marine tilapia was examined, and it was found that the Florida red tilapia was deemed to be the best candidate species of tilapia for brackishwater culture (CBIE/BCEI, 1997). By culturing the red tilapia in the Philippines problems may arise. Also the lack of hatchery facilities near brackishwater farming regions could halter the aquaculture of the Florida red tilapia.

Table 2 Summary of the natural capital found in the Lingayen and its value
 

Natural Capital	Benefits	Value
Coral reefs	Enhance biodiversity 70% of the aquarium fishes are harvested from the Lingayen Gulf provide shelter for many marine organisms coral reefs and marine organisms provide 50% of the protein intake of the people of the Philippines prevent the destruction of coastal comminutes when typhoons occur	The fish found in the coral reefs are exported to several countries. The fishing industry generates an income well over the millions. Small-scale fisherman have produced yields of fish worth $US 6,000-8,700 ha-1/yr. The tourism industry has benefited from the coral reefs,
Mangroves	Serve as breeding grounds the diverse marine life found in the Lingayen Gulf Provide products used for fuel, construction, fishing, agriculture, forage for livestock, paper, agriculture, textile, leather, and food Prevent soil erosion and the destruction of coastal communities by typhoons Can trap chemicals and detoxify them.	The values of a complete mangrove system is worth $1,000-$11,000. If fish are counted as the only natural capital found in the mangroves, the worth is US$3,000.
Tilapia & Milkfish	The aquaculture of milkfish and Tilapia help reduce the stress put on the Lingayen by overfishing The fish are exported to overseas market, generating profit.	A pound of Tilapia is exported overseas for US$4.00 per lb.

    The benefits we obtain from the coral reefs are an important reason to reevaluate fishing methods and management plans in the Lingayen Gulf. At this point Lingayen Gulf appears to be environmentally unsustainable for several reasons:

• The rapid population increase and the consequent concentration of human settlements along the coast have further aggravated the already deteriorating condition of the gulf.
• Overfishing is occurring.

    At the moment the number of boats and fisherman are outnumbering the catch of fish. The resources of the Lingayen Gulf are being depleted at the extent at which the fish have become the limiting factor instead of the boats. In effect, the limiting factor of economic development has become natural capital. Figure 2 illustrates the relationship between the number of fishers and the catch per unit. As the density of fisherman and boats increases, the catch per income decreases (Paw, 1991).

    The decrease in CPU has led some fishers to resort to destructive fishing methods, such as cyanide poisoning, fish blasts, and trawling. The damage done on the ecosystem by these methods are devastating. Non-targeted fish are killed when these methods are applied. The result is a bycatch that outnumbers the targeted species. The bycatch is thrown back into to the ocean, altering the delicate ecosystem. The mass fishkills can decrease the oxygen level, cause eutrophication, and alter the behaviors of the fish (Safina, 1995). Table 2 is a chart summarizing the environmental problems in the Lingayen.

Table 3
 

Environmental Problem	Source of degradation	Causes
Water contamination	Human waste Surface runoff	Population increase Deforestation
Biodiversity Loss	Coral reef destruction Mangrove destruction	Illegal fishing techniques  Growth in aquaculture
Fishery Loss	Overfishing Illegal fishing techniques	Inability to enforce limits Water pollution
Coastal erosion	Unsustainable use of natural Resources in the coastal areas Mangrove destruction	Lack of awareness Lack of controls Lack of integrated strategy for coastal development

Problems

    Population growth, poverty, and government policies are some of the major underlying causes of environmental problems. Population growth contributes to environmental degradation by increasing the demand for natural resources. And demand for natural resources adds stress on the environment due to habitat degradation, loss in biodiversity, and the loss of organisms. Ultimately the loss of natural resources can have a negative effect on economics (and vice versa). Poverty and environmental degradation are closely related, with both reinforcing the other. When poverty is present, increased stress is put on the environment. People rely more on natural resources, the "commons" as a source of income. The lack of governmental policies and environmental management plans has exacerbated environmental degradation. Government policies are needed to prevent environmental degradation. However, implementing government policies is not enough; policies must be enforced. What often occurs is that policies are implemented, but are ignored. This accounts for the continued degradation of the environment.

    Overfishing is just one of the environmental problems occurring around the world today. According to Safina, the world’s fishing fleet grew at twice the rate of global catch (1995). Overfishing is linked to population growth, poverty, and the lack and enforcement of government policies. As the population increases the demand for oceanic resources increases as well. This is especially true for Asia-Pacific where fish accounts for seventy percent of the protein intake. The increasing demand for natural resources and the declining fish populations have led fisheries and fisherman to resort to harmful fishing techniques such as cyanide poisoning, fish blasting, and trawlers. These techniques are responsible for the destruction of coral reefs, habitat degradation, the loss of biodiversity, and the loss of organisms. Although cyanide poisoning and fish blasting are outlawed, fishermen continue to practice these techniques. The reason being that cyanide poisoning and fish blasting can catch fish at a faster rate. Cyanide poisoning and fish blasting are detrimental to coral reefs and fish. One blast can destroy thousands of years of coral growth (http://seawis.gcfc.nasa.gov/OCEAN-PLANET/HTML/peril-bombs.html). Coral reefs are responsible for sheltering many organisms such as fish, mollusks, and marine larvae. The reefs are essential breeding grounds for the fish of the world. When coral reefs are destroyed, fish populations decline.

Overfishing in the Lingayen Gulf

    Overfishing of the Lingayen Gulf is caused by the increasing growth of the nation’s population, poverty, and the lack of enforcement of regulations prohibiting the use of detrimental fishing techniques such as cyanide poisoning, fish blasting, and trawling. Also habitat management plans have not been implemented until recently.

Socioeconomic Problems

    Poverty is the major underlying causes of environmental degradation. The Philippine economy is currently in a slump. Because of last year’s Asia-wide currency crisis growth in the economy of the Philippines has slowed. According to the National Economic and Development Authority, the gross domestic product will grow by only four percent in 1998, down from an estimated five percent last year (Landingin, 1998). Not only is the economy slowing, depreciation of the peso against the U.S. dollar continues. "With the peso at about 44 per dollar as compared with only 26.40 in July of ’97, it now costs 67 percent more to import goods from abroad and service dollar denominated loans" (Landingin, 1998). Last year’s slowdown has reduced the economy’s ability to generate employment. As a result, the number of jobless workers went up from 2.55 million in 1996 to 2.64 million in 1997. The unemployment rate climbed from 8.5 percent to 8.6 percent, and it is predicted that unemployment will increase further. According to Paw (1991), on the average, 50% of the families are below poverty line as set by the National Economic And Development Authority of U.S. $1650/yr. As the economy slows, more Filipinos are moving towards coastal cities in hopes that fishing will provide a means of income and subsistence.

Environmental Problems

    One of the reasons for the population growth in the Lingayen Gulf region is due to poverty. The Philippine population is expected to double within the next thirty years, whereas the U.S. population is expected to double within the next 116 years (Population Reference Bureau, 1997). The low doubling time suggests that the Philippine population will grow at a faster rate than more developed countries. With the increase in population more are fishing the Lingayen Gulf in hopes that the fish caught will provide a source of protein for their families, and an essential source of income. The lack of alternative livelihood opportunities has resulted in fishing as the only means of survival. However, the increasing growth in fishing has had a negative impact on the gulf and its resources. Population growth increases the demand for natural resources, and as population increases in the Lingayen Gulf region, so does the number of fisherman and boats. "Overall, the fishfolk population has been increasing since the 1950’s resulting in very high fisherman and boat density. The gulf is currently experiencing biological overfishing due to excessive fishing efforts which have been noted in the mid 1970s" (Paw, 1991). As the number of fisherman increases, the percent catch per unit effort decreases. (Fig. 1.2) The reason for the decreasing catch per unit is due to the fact that fishers are extracting more fish from the Lingayen than can be produced. The declining catch per unit has resulted in a reduced food supply, income loss, and a higher unemployment rate. It is evident that poverty and environmental degradation are closely linked. In order to attain a sustainable Lingayen Gulf economic sustainability is needed.

    What is occurring in the Lingayen Gulf is known as "tragedy of the commons". The population of fisherman is increasing at a faster rate than the amount of fish in the Gulf. As the population increases it exceeds the carrying capacity. The fish population is unable to shoulder the fishermen’s needs. In turn the fish and shrimp become the limiting factors. When the fish become limiting factors this results in the declining size in catch and income. If measures are not taken the depletion of fish and other organisms will continue. It is inevitable that some species may become extinct. With the declining catch occurring in the Lingayen, the subsistence of many fishermen has been affected. The fishermen are now resorting to what is called "Malthusian overfishing", which is defined as a desperate attempt to fish to survive where fishers destroy the environment that the fish depend on for survival using poison, dynamite, and trawlers.

Fishing Techniques

    To maximize catch brought about by intense competition in the area, many fishermen have turned to illegal fishing methods such as the use of cyanide poisoning. Cyanide poisoning began in the late 1960’s and is still being used today. The chemical cyanide is squirted into the crevices of coral reefs where fish reside. The cyanide stuns the fish, and makes them easier to catch. Cyanide is hazardous to the entire environment. It kills other fish, eggs, marine larvae, and mollusks. Repeated applications damage the reefs and threaten millions of the tiny animals that make up the reef itself. Damage of coral reefs causes a decline in fish harvests. This is detrimental for the people of the Lingayen Gulf because they rely heavily on the reefs for income and food. Fish caught among the reefs are the source of half the protein of the Filipino diet.

    Cyanide is also responsible for the destruction of mangroves off the coast of the Lingayen. These mangroves serve as hatcheries for fish and prawns. When mangroves are destroyed organisms are lost as well, resulting in the decreased biodiversity in the gulf.

    Fish that were exposed to cyanide and have survived exhibit deformities. Some fishes have gross liver changers, abnormalities in the kidney and spleen. It was also observed that some fish displayed iron pigments on their brain tissue (Rubec, 1986). This has caused some concern in terms of the genetic diversity in the Lingayen and consequences of eating cyanide contaminated fish.

    In terms of genetic diversity, it may be possible that fisherman may be altering the genetic diversity of the fish in the Lingayen. It has been noted that the average size of fish has been decreasing in length (Safina, 1995). What is happening is that fishers have been overfishing the large fish, leaving the smaller fish to reproduce. With the small fish reproducing the average size decreases, and eventually the large fish population dwindles until it no longer exists. There are some fish present in the Lingayen Gulf, which are contaminated with cyanide. Another genetic concern for the fish in the Lingayen are those that display deformities due to cyanide contamination. If they reproduce, the possibility of these deformities could occur in future generations. Another problem with sodium cyanide is that when placed in water it completely dissociates into hydrocyanic acid (Rubec, 1986). Hydrocyanic acid is taken up through the body of the fish quickly. When fish eggs, frys, and adults were exposed to low concentrations in the range of 0.005-0.01 mg/l of hydrocyanic acid they exhibited adverse affects, such as reduced growth, impaired swimming performance, increased metabolism, inhibition of reproduction due to alteration of lipid metabolism and increased respiratory rates, damage to reproductive organs, and reduction of hatching success and survival (Rubec, 1986).

    Cyanide is not only hazardous to fish, but to humans as well. It is harmful when it is inhaled, ingested, or absorbed in the skin. Eating cyanide-contaminated fish does not appear to be harmful to adults because the amount of cyanide is quite small, but to children it could prove lethal (Rubec, 1986). Some deaths of several Filipinos from villages in Boliano, Pangasinan have been attributed to cyanide poisoning. The deaths could have occurred when the food fish that was caught were placed in the bags containing the sodium cyanide tablets, and the fish may have been cross-contaminated. Another possibility was that the people who died ate fish which had cyanide poisoned baits still in their stomachs (Rubec, 1986).

    Another illegal technique practiced in the Lingayen is fish blasting. The widespread use of this technique continues because it kills a lot of fish in a few seconds. Basically a bomb is ignited and thrown into the sea. The impact of the blast kills many fish in an area instantly. Similar to cyanide poisoning, fish blasting affects the environment, the species of the Lingayen, and the people. It kills many other species, plants, and reefs. A single blast can destroy thousands of years of coral growth. A beer bottle size bomb exploding near the bottom will shatter all stony corals in a circle ten feet wide. A gallon-sized bomb takes an area about thirty-three feet in diameter (Feldman). Fish blasting is also hazardous to humans. Many accidents have occurred with the use of fish blasting.

    Another technique that has been responsible for overfishing in the Lingayen is the use of trawlers. Trawling is the most common fishing technique practiced around the world today. Trawling is basically dragging a net across the sea floor and catching anything that comes across these nets. Bottom trawling catches fish and shrimp easily, but it disrupts the complex communities of plants and animals found in the sediment (Dayton et al, 1995). Usually an area is trawled several times a year. The problem involved is that sea-floor species could easily be displaced, affecting the biodiversity of the Lingayen Gulf. Another problem is that the type and availability of nutrients could be changed. When the nutrient rich sediment is whipped up by the scraper eutrophication can occur. The plethora of nutrients released results in algae blooms. Algae blooms can lead to fish kills because of their ability to deplete the oxygen in the ocean. What also can occur is that when the algae blooms die, microorganisms decompose them. When microorganisms decompose things they take up oxygen. So when biological oxygen demand increases, the dissolved oxygen in the water decreases. This could have a negative affect on other species, which cannot tolerate an oxygen-depleted environment. Other times many organisms end up starving. When the trawlers whip up the sediment the water becomes so cloudy that organisms that rely on their vision to catch their prey end up starving because they are unable to locate their prey.

Political Problems

    The major problem in the Lingayen Gulf is that fishermen are not obeying the regulations and laws set by the Philippine government. Fish blasting and cyanide poisoning have been outlawed, but still continue to be practiced by many fishermen. The problem is that the government is having trouble enforcing these rules. Too many fishermen are doing it, and cyanide users fish at night to avoid being caught. Fishermen have set up illegal fish pens to increase their catch, but there have been some crackdowns.

    Community-based management plans should be implemented, as well as national plans. What the government needs to do is provide artisanal fishermen with powered boats and more efficient gears. They need to control the access and overuse of the Lingayen Gulf, but there’s a problem. The question of "Who is allowed to fish in the Gulf and who has the fishing rights?" arises. Habitat management plans can help solve these problems. In order to implement habitat management plans in the Lingayen Gulf, help is needed by non-governmental organizations, environmental groups, and the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development.

    Fishponds are just one of the many methods to help sustain Lingayen Gulf. Because fish populations in the Lingayen have become limiting, many fishermen have invested in fishponds. "This introduces a hybrid category that combines natural and human-made capital – a category called cultivated natural capital" (Goodland, 1996).

Opportunities

    In order to work towards a socially, economically, and environmentally sustainable Lingayen Gulf, habitat management plans need to be implemented. Habitat management plans are in the process of being carried out. Such plans include Agenda 21 and the Central Visaya’s Regional Project-I (Vande Vusse, 1991).

    According to Agenda 21, combating poverty is a major national priority for economic, environmental, and social sustainability. "The Philippines launched the Social Reform Agenda (SRA) on June 4, 1995 to enable people to have access opportunities for undertaking sustainable livelihoods espoused under the agenda for change. The SRA is an integrated set of major reforms to enable citizens to: a) meet their basic human needs and live decent lives; b) widen their share of resources from which they can earn a living or increase the fruits of their labor; and c) enable them to effectively participate in the decision-making processes that affect their rights, interests, and their welfare" (Philippine Council for Sustainable Development, 1997). Two years into implementation, the SRA was enhanced with an ecosystem perspective, emphasizing four dimensions of poverty where reform can have the greatest impact. Goals include:

• promoting social equality, by providing the poorest of the poor with access to basic services for survival.
• working towards a prosperous economy, by ensuring that the basic sectors have access to productive assets that allow them to contribute to national growth.
• emphasizing ecological security by incorporating the parameters of sustainable development in the management and utilization of natural resources.
• promoting responsive governance, by democratizing structures and processes to allow the meaningful participation of key stakeholders in policy.

    "The central Visayas Regional Project-I has been implementing a US$3.5 million coastal resources management project at five sites, encompassing 223 km of the central Philippine coastline for the past 4 years" (Vande Vusse, 1991). The project assists in developing resource management through community organization and use of simple appropriate technologies. Methods proposed are coral reef management, mangrove reforestation, and management of artificial coral reefs. Harvest management addresses growth overfishing. Methods that are being used to date include small sea ranching and farming, and community control of illegal and destructive fishing methods.

    The aquaculture of milkfish and tilapia is just one of the many ways in which we can achieve an environmentally sustainable Lingayen Gulf. Aquacultures can alleviate the overfishing problem occurring in the Lingayen Gulf. However, there are also some problems with aquaculture. Environmentalists who oppose aquaculture feel that if milkfish and tilapia were cultured, genetic diversity would be lost. The loss of genetic diversity could increase the viability of a disease in the organism. Another problem would be pollution caused by the waste of the fish being cultured. When waste increases the amount of dissolved oxygen decreases and the amount of biological oxygen demand increases. Microscopic organisms will break down the feces of the fish, but in doing so they require oxygen. Once they deplete the oxygen the primary organisms would die, and this could affect the whole food web. This occurs during fish kills. It is also possible that the feces of the fish could cause eutrophication and algal blooms.

    Another problem associated with aquaculture is the destruction of mangroves. Mangroves are destroyed to make room for fish farms. The destruction of mangroves has caused coastal erosion. Many organisms living in the mangroves have been displaced or killed by the fish farms. Also, the destruction of mangroves is a great loss to the people who depend on them for fuel, food, and raw material. Sustainable aquaculture must be practiced. By expanding cultivated natural capital in the gulf, pressure upon the natural resources of the Lingayen Gulf will be relieved. This will allow the fish to repopulate. Aside from expanding cultivated natural capital, laws prohibiting cyanide poisoning, fish blasting, and trawling must be enforced to ensure fish population growth. The Philippines has prohibited the use of these fishing methods, but large-scale fisheries continue to use them. Large fines and harsh punishments can deter the fisheries from practicing these methods. Also, environmentally safe-fishing methods should be implemented.

    Many organizations have found an alternative to cyanide use. The Haribon Foundation for the Conservation of Natural Resources in the Philippines and Ocean Voice International in Canada have developed an alternative to cyanide poisoning. Using a bamboo stick, divers chase fish out of their holes in the reef into a transparent net and then catch them with smaller dip nets. Currently 700 of the 2,500 fish catchers have been trained to use nets, and as a result of this alternative, the use of cyanide to capture fish has so far dropped by 15%-20% in the Philippines (International Development Research Centre, 1997). Also an environmental group known as the Ocean Voice International teamed up with the Haribon Foundation for the Conservation of Natural Resources in the Philippines and the International Marinelife Alliance to establish a training program for Filipino fishers. Funded by Canada’s IDRC, the program teaches divers to use hand held fine-mesh "fence" nets to catch fish. The method is much cheaper than using cyanide. But there are other fishermen who firmly believe that fish blasting and cyanide poisoning is a much faster and easier way of catching fish. This may result in the low number of people who practice this technique.

    Some of the technologies used in the Lingayen Gulf include simple habitat management technologies. These include: 1.) Artificial reefs that would be constructed and placed by the fisherman themselves 2.) Coral reef management through the establishment of reef sanctuaries, and 3.) Mangrove reforestation. (VandeVusse, 1991). The development of these techniques could save many of the organisms that live in the Lingayen Gulf. Artificial reefs provide homes, shelter, and breeding grounds for the many organisms in the gulf, and are responsible for the development of populations of fish species. According to Vande Vusse (1991), artificial reef areas attract large pelagic predators such as jacks, rainbow runners, and narrow-barred Spanish mackerels. It was also observed that small pelagics such as anchovies and sardines tend to remain in the vicinity for much longer periods. Clearly artificial reefs are an important factor in sustaining the Lingayen Gulf. Artificial reefs enhance biodiversity and add to the development of fish populations. An increase in fish populations could increase the catch per unit of many fishermen. If this occurs the livelihoods of many fishermen would benefit.

    Another method that is being implemented is mangrove reforestation. Mangrove reforestation would also increase fish populations in the shallow water regions of the coast of the Lingayen. Reforestation of the mangroves would provide more breeding grounds for many aquatic organisms. Ranch farming in these mangroves would also decrease the number of fisherman in the Lingayen Gulf as well and will promote safer fishing techniques.

    The best way to prevent overfishing in the Lingayen is through public awareness and education. If more people are informed about the adverse effects of overfishing in the Lingayen Gulf, many fishermen may practice safer fishing methods. Also management plans may be implemented. Efforts are being undertaken to integrate environmental education in all levels of education. The only problem left is the funding of these plans.

    Money is a key issue in the success of implementing a management plan. A lot of these plans require millions of dollars, and with the Philippine economy at a low many of these plans may never be implemented. The aid from NGO’s and environmental groups is desperately needed. Sustaining the Lingayen Gulf is not that easy. The economy, environment, and society must be dealt with. These three factors make it difficult in reaching a sustainable Lingayen Gulf, but it can be done.

    Because the Philippines is experiencing hard times, problems implementing management plans may occur. Also these management plans require millions of dollars, which the Philippines cannot afford. If management plans want to be implemented aid from environmental programs such as Habrion, NGO’s, and Canada’s IDRC is needed. Implementing a management plan such as Agenda 21 ranks as the most important recommendation. In my opinion a management plan addresses the environmental problems and possible solutions. This kind of organization allows goals to be set and achieved. These plans set goals of attaining social, economic, and environmental sustainability.

    In my opinion, education and public awareness ranks second in a long list of recommendations. If the public is aware of the damages and consequences of overfishing in the Lingayen Gulf, many people may stop the use of destructive fishing techniques. Still there will be fishers and fisheries that will continue to use these methods. These fishing techniques are illegal, but the Philippine government slacks when in enforcing these laws. The Philippine government needs to reevaluate these laws, and enforce them. After all, what is the use of laws if not obeyed? They might as well not be implemented. Enforcing laws are a must. If the fish are protected their populations will rebound along with the social and economic activities they support (Safina, 1995).

    Once these laws are established work is needed to make Lingayen socially, economically, and environmentally sustainable. Habitat management plans need to be implemented. The outlaw of illegal fishing techniques would help decrease the number of deaths due to bycatch. Mangrove reforestation and aquaculture would help reduce the stress on the Lingayen Gulf, and decrease overfishing. If overfishing stops the fish stock will be allowed to rebound. Once the fish population rebounds, the catch per unit will increase. If the CPU increases, the income of the fishers will also increase. The increase in household income may help attain economic sustainability.

    Economic sustainability is needed to achieve environmental stability. Poverty is the main cause of environmental degradation in the Lingayen Gulf. It is necessary to achieve a sustainable economy to prevent environmental degradation. Alternative livelihoods are needed for the people of the Philippines. If alternative livelihoods were presented less people would crowd the coasts of the Lingayen, which could alleviate the environmental degradation in the Lingayen. The Filipinos would not have to resort to fishing as the only means of survival.

    To attain an environmental, social, and economic sustainable gulf, management plans must be implemented. In order for the plans to be implemented several factors must be considered:

• The plans must be accepted by the government and the community
• Funding must be available to implement the various proposed projects
• Having a strong political will and institutional capability to effectively enforce management actions that are proposed in the plans

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